Topic: Local Government

A building painted with the phrase 'Welcome to the ONE Love'

El ONE sigue en pie

Lecciones de un gran compromiso que asumió una ciudad pequeña con la capacidad de pago en los barrios
Por Julie Campoli, October 31, 2023

Este otoño, el Instituto Lincoln de Políticas de Suelo está lanzando un video y caso de estudio sobre un esfuerzo de décadas de trayectoria para crear y preservar la vivienda asequible en el barrio de Old North End de Burlington, Vermont, un barrio que algunos residentes llaman con afecto “el ONE” (el [número] UNO).

Desde principios de la década de 1800, un entramado estrecho de calles en el extremo norte de Burlington, Vermont, ha albergado a obreros, trabajadores de servicio y a quienes necesitaban un lugar asequible donde vivir. Old North End ha sido un lugar de llegada, y también de permanencia. Sus departamentos modestos y viviendas pequeñas ofrecen un punto de apoyo para quienes recién llegan y una oportunidad de quedarse por generaciones. Cuarenta años atrás, todo pudo haber cambiado.

Las fuerzas de la economía global de la década de 1980 habían generado una caída del barrio. La pobreza y el crimen estaban creciendo, junto con el desempleo. Unas décadas antes, en un esquema de renovación urbana desacertado, los dirigentes de la ciudad habían condenado y demolido varios edificios en un barrio colindante, lo que desplazó a su tan unida comunidad ítaloestadounidense. Los residentes y defensores de la vivienda temían que Old North End fuera la próxima víctima del redesarrollo a gran escala.

“Los especuladores compraban y reservaban propiedades”, dijo Brenda Torpy, exdirectora de políticas de vivienda para la ciudad. No estaban interesados en generar valor por medio de la mejora de las propiedades o el fomento de los negocios: “Su objetivo era agrupar una manzana donde pudieran tirar todo abajo y hacer una gran jugada”.

Cuando el mercado local se intensificó, los residentes de Old North End empezaron a sentir la presión. Los alquileres subían a medida que las propiedades cambiaban de mano. No existía ninguna ley de protección de inquilinos, y las administraciones previas de la ciudad habían mostrado muy poco interés en hacer cumplir el código. La situación estaba creando una sensación de desasosiego entre los residentes, y, a la vez, creó una sensación de urgencia en una administración dirigida por un alcalde recién votado, un joven progresista llamado Bernie Sanders.

La administración de Sanders quería prevenir el desplazamiento de los residentes de la clase obrera. Eso engendró una idea que se convirtió en un experimento, y con el tiempo y por medio de un esfuerzo sostenido, en un método confiable para preservar y producir una masa significativa de viviendas que fueran asequibles permanentemente.

Una sección del Old North End, el barrio más antiguo y con mayor densidad poblacional de Burlington. Crédito: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

 

Si bien la vivienda era el eje central de este esfuerzo, el objetivo era mejorar la vida de muchas otras formas y ofrecer la oportunidad de prosperar. El dinámico alcalde y su personal joven, talentoso e incansable promovieron el apoyo público de la seguridad de la vivienda universal e implementaron un abanico de programas y políticas para alcanzarlo. A lo largo de los años, la ciudad hizo mejoras en el paisaje urbano, e invirtió en escuelas, parques y programas recreativos. La cultura de compromiso cívico de Burlington demostró ser terreno fértil para las organizaciones sin fines de lucro, que surgieron para brindar servicios (capacitación laboral, atención sanitaria, ayuda legal, recreación, cuidado infantil, asistencia alimentaria) y apoyo emocional para personas que enfrentan muchos desafíos que van más allá de pagar el alquiler.

Muchas ciudades han abordado los problemas de desplazamiento e inseguridad de la vivienda. Pero pocas intentaron una estrategia tan ambiciosa y multifacética durante un período tan extenso. Los dirigentes de Burlington adoptaron un enfoque creativo para problemas que parecían no tener solución. Trabajaron desde las bases populares, con confianza en las organizaciones barriales para comunicar las necesidades y generar apoyo público. Se mantuvieron flexibles, y fueron ajustando sus métodos para que se amoldaran a las condiciones cambiantes. Además, establecieron los cimientos para un sistema de entrega de viviendas que continuaría por años, más allá de los cambios de dirigentes políticos y las condiciones económicas.

Hoy en día, los residentes de Old North End viven en una ciudad con buenas escuelas, una tasa de desempleo del condado del 1,3 por ciento, muchos espacios verdes y una red de seguridad social confiable. Los servicios que antes solo podían encontrarse en barrios más adinerados ahora se encuentran en los márgenes. El lugar sigue cambiando: muchas personas ancianas se fueron, y personas pudientes se mudaron al barrio. Pero, gracias a una generosa oferta de vivienda subsidiada, sigue siendo un refugio seguro para las personas trabajadoras y una puerta de entrada para la gente refugiada y quienes necesitan mejores oportunidades.

Identificar la necesidad

Las investigaciones demuestran cada vez más que los niños que crecen en ambientes con abundancia de recursos tienen mejores resultados en sus vidas (Opportunity Insights). Además de familias comprensivas, los niños necesitan la infraestructura física y social que se encuentra en las comunidades prósperas y cohesivas. Definidos por los investigadores y los legisladores como “áreas de grandes oportunidades”, estos lugares ofrecen escuelas, espacios de encuentro comunitario, opciones laborales y servicios vitales como transporte público, atención médica, servicios de guardería y comida saludable. Sus fuertes redes sociales fomentan la resiliencia y amortiguan los desafíos de la vida.

Desafortunadamente, las personas que más necesitan estos lugares no pueden afrontar el costo de mudarse a ellos. Y, en general, no tienen suficiente dinero para permanecer en los barrios que se están transformando en áreas de grandes oportunidades.

En las metrópolis prósperas, una marea creciente de riqueza que emana de los centros de la ciudad genera calles más atractivas y más seguras y muchos servicios para los barrios urbanos que se han descuidado por mucho tiempo. Pero la marea de inversión rara vez produce viviendas de asequibilidad permanente. Los alquileres cada vez más altos expulsan a los residentes de ingresos bajos hacia los lugares que pueden costear, que ofrecen menos de la calidad que propicia la movilidad ascendente. La vivienda de asequibilidad permanente, restringida por los ingresos, prevendría dicho desplazamiento y, en otros contextos, brindaría acceso a los barrios prósperos. Pero solo el 7 por ciento de 74.000 unidades de vivienda subsidiadas en los Estados Unidos se encuentran en áreas de grandes oportunidades (Freddie Mac 2022). El resto se encuentra en lugares con pocos recursos.

Cuando la demanda de vivienda aumenta y se filtra en los barrios que sufrieron falta de inversión, los primeros signos no son evidentes. Los inversores compran las propiedades relativamente económicas, pero no hacen las mejoras de inmediato, lo que ejerce presión sobre el mercado de viviendas para que suban los precios sin un signo visible de cambio. Para el momento en el que los significantes de aburguesamiento (construcciones renovadas y negocios de lujo) aparecen, los precios del mercado ya aumentaron a un nivel que hace más desafiante la preservación y la producción de viviendas asequibles.

Por suerte, los dirigentes en Burlington reconocieron el riesgo de desplazamiento antes de que sea demasiado tarde, para prevenirlo en una escala significativa. Pero, en seguida, enfrentaron otra pregunta: ¿cómo podían pagar los esfuerzos para combatir el desplazamiento que tenían en mente?

La década de 1980 ya había dejado una reducción significativa en el gasto del gobierno cuando la administración de Reagan recortó los presupuestos, lo que reveló que sería el mercado y no el gobierno quien resolvería los problemas sociales persistentes. El alcalde Sander tenía otra opinión, pero la realidad fiscal (los programas de asistencia federal drásticamente reducidos) requirió un enfoque alternativo al financiamiento.

En búsqueda de financiamiento

En 1984, Sanders destinó US$ 200.000 en fondos excedentarios para operar el Fideicomiso de Suelo Comunitario de Burlington (BCLT, por su sigla en inglés), como iniciativa destinada a expandir la propiedad. Préstamos de dos millones de dólares del fondo de jubilaciones de los empleados de la ciudad y un préstamo de un banco local pusieron el trabajo de la organización en marcha. En los años que siguieron, la ciudad obtuvo fondos de los programas federales como los programas de Subsidio en Bloque de Desarrollo Comunitario y HOME.

Muchos residentes de la clase obrera de Old North End aseguraron su tenencia comprando una vivienda de equidad compartida del BCLT. Por medio del modelo de fideicomiso de suelo comunitario (CLT, por su sigla en inglés), que fue pionero en Georgia en la década de 1960 y se adoptó desde entonces en todo el país, las personas compran viviendas en tierras que son propiedad del CLT. Los propietarios aceptan vender la propiedad a un precio restringido para que siga siendo asequible, pero pueden generar equidad mientras dure la posesión.

Alcalde, Bernie Sanders, a la derecha, con Alderman Terry Bouricius en un centro electoral de Burlington en 1983. Sanders ejerció como alcalde de 1981 a 1989. Crédito: AP Photo/Donna Light.

 

Otros que no estaban listos o no eran capaces de poseer una casa encontraron departamentos asequibles en construcciones que eran propiedad de Lake Champlain Housing Development Corporation (LCHDC). Al igual que el BCLT, LCHDC fue creado por la administración de Sanders y lanzado como una organización sin fines de lucro, pero su misión fue brindar viviendas para alquilar. Estas instituciones, junto con muchas otras organizaciones sin fines de lucro, programas y políticas que surgieron en la década 1980 y 1990, fueron parte de una multitud de esfuerzos realizados por funcionarios, activistas y otros, con el objetivo de ayudar a generar riqueza individual y comunitaria en Old North End.

La Oficina de Desarrollo Económico y Comunitario (CEDO, por su sigla en inglés) que se había creado recientemente en la ciudad orquestó estos esfuerzos. Con los precios de las viviendas en alza al doble que el índice de ingresos, el foco de la CEDO estuvo en la vivienda, en particular, en proteger a las personas en situación de vulnerabilidad, preservar la vivienda asequible existente y crear viviendas que las personas de ingresos bajos y moderados pudieran pagar. CEDO produjo una gran cantidad de ordenanzas de protección de inquilinos, fomentadas por los defensores de la vivienda de BCLT y LCHDC, y aprobadas por un concejo municipal cada vez más progresista (Davis 1990).

En 1984, el concejo aprobó una Ordenanza de Vivienda Justa para prevenir la discriminación de los inquilinos. A esto le siguió una ley que ponía un freno a las exorbitantes comisiones de depósito de seguridad. El código de vivienda mínima, que estaba desactualizado y apenas se cumplía, se repensó en 1986. El mismo año, los votantes de Burlington aprobaron un impuesto antiespeculación (pero la legislatura lo rechazó con posterioridad). A esto le siguió una ordenanza de conversión de condominios en 1987, que impuso un tasa de impacto a los desarrolladores que desplazaban a los inquilinos a la vez que convertía la vivienda para alquiler en condominios o cooperativas.

Los dirigentes de Burlington utilizaron un modelo de financiación flexible para apoyar sus esfuerzos por preservar la vivienda asequible. Crédito: Instituto Lincoln de Políticas de Suelo.

 

Las personas que integraban la CEDO se convirtieron en solicitantes de subsidios persistentes y creativas, y obtuvieron fondos de los Subsidios de Acción de Desarrollo para la Vivienda, Sección 8, y los programas de asistencia para alquileres. Además, lograron recaudar rápidamente un presupuesto para mantener en movimiento los esfuerzos del BCLT hasta que el flujo estable de dinero surgiera en la década siguiente. En 1989, los votantes de Burlington acordaron un aumento de centavos en su tasa de impuestos inmobiliarios, que se destinaría a la vivienda asequible. El dinero se depositaría en un Fondo de Fideicomiso para la Vivienda y la ciudad lo usaría para aumentar la oferta de viviendas de asequibilidad permanente.

Inspirado por lo que estaba sucediendo en Burlington y preocupado por la especulación en torno a la vivienda y la tierra en todo el país, la entonces gobernadora Madeleine Kunin instó a la legislatura a que creara un fondo de fideicomiso estatal para la vivienda. En 1988, estableció la Junta de Conservación y Vivienda de Vermont (VHCB, por su sigla en inglés). Fundada con un porcentaje del impuesto de transferencia de la propiedad estatal, la VHCB empezó a distribuir millones de dólares a organizaciones sin fines de lucro a lo largo de Vermont, con el objetivo combinado de preservar el espacio abierto y la vivienda asequible. La VHCB compartió el compromiso con la asequibilidad permanente. De hecho, el énfasis en la permanencia se había filtrado en un número cada vez mayor de leyes y planes estatales, con la ayuda de la administración de Kunin.

Si bien el BCLT necesitaba dinero para sus operaciones, también necesitaba convencer a las instituciones de financiamiento para que prestaran dinero a sus compradores de viviendas. En ese entonces, el modelo de fideicomiso de suelo comunitario de condominio era un producto hipotecario nuevo y no probado. No quedaba claro si existía un mercado para viviendas de equidad compartida, lo que confundía a los valuadores e inquietaba a las entidades crediticias. El BCLT presionó a la Agencia de Financiamiento de la Vivienda de Vermont (VHFA, por su sigla en inglés), a quien se le encomendó la tarea de permitir que los residentes de ingresos bajos y medios pudieran acceder a la propiedad de la vivienda, a fin de desbloquear el atolladero. Un acuerdo inicial elaborado por la VHFA permitió que los bancos tomaran la tierra y la vivienda en caso de incumplimiento.

El BCLT aceptó estos términos para que el proyecto se pusiera en marcha, y con el paso del tiempo, dado que resultó evidente que las viviendas de equidad compartida eran una apuesta segura (no hubo ninguna ejecución hipotecaria en los primeros cuatro años), la VHFA y los bancos locales se convirtieron en entidades crediticias entusiastas, y, como consecuencia, se crearon productos mucho más favorables. Para el 2015, la VHFA había otorgado más de US$ 80 millones en hipotecas para propietarios de fideicomisos de suelo, y los bancos de todo el estado siguieron el ejemplo (Torpy 2015).

Responder a la comunidad

Una fortaleza fundamental del Fideicomiso de Suelo Comunitario de Burlington fue su habilidad de reconocer las barreras para la vivienda garantizada e improvisar formas de superarlas. Según Brenda Torpy, directora de la organización durante muchos años, la pregunta no fue “¿Cuál es el plan de negocio?”, sino “¿Cuál es la necesidad?”. El BCLT se esforzó para reunirse con la comunidad donde estaba y encontrar una forma de satisfacer sus necesidades (Torpy 2015).

Cuando fue claro que nadie quería o podía costear una vivienda unifamiliar, incluso a un precio subsidiado, el BCLT se sumergió en el desafío de ofrecer a los habitantes de departamentos la posibilidad de ser propietarios. De la misma forma en que habían abierto un camino para el condominio de viviendas, el personal del BCLT buscó una forma de hacer posible la propiedad dentro de la estructura de una construcción multifamiliar. La estrategia factible fue crear una cooperativa, en la que los residentes compartieran la propiedad de sus edificios de departamentos, en tierras del BCLT. Al igual que con el modelo de vivienda unifamiliar, sus pagos mensuales generarían equidad.

En ese momento, los condominios eran un concepto nuevo, en Vermont no había una legislación que habilitara las cooperativas de equidad limitada. Con el tiempo, el BCLT persuadió a los legisladores estatales para que legalizaran las cooperativas. Creó un puñado de cooperativas en el barrio, pero quedaba claro que el modelo no tenía mucha aceptación. A las personas les parecía que la posibilidad de coordinar con los vecinos la gestión y el mantenimiento de una construcción era demasiado abrumadora. Preferían un propietario responsable.

A pesar de que la organización no había propuesto actuar como un propietario, para la década del 1990, el BCLT poseía un gran número de propiedades para alquiler; de esta forma, complementaba los esfuerzos de Lake Champlain Housing Development Corporation y brindaba los departamentos que los residentes de Old North End necesitaban.

En los últimos años, los proyectos de vivienda inclusiva y asequible han incluido el Bright Street Co-op, un complejo de 40 unidades construido en un ex terreno abandonado. Crédito: cortesía del Fideicomiso de Vivienda de Champlain.

 

Al mismo tiempo, se movió en otra dirección necesaria. Durante la crisis de ahorros y préstamos de la década de 1990, los bancos y propietarios de edificios industriales salieron de sus hipotecas, y dejaron una franja de Old North End vacante. Las leyes medioambientales estatales que atribuían la responsabilidad de limpieza de los terrenos abandonados a las entidades crediticias prevenían todo tipo de inversión privada en las propiedades, que estaban decrépitas y atraían comportamientos delictivos (Torpy 2015). Esto no fue un problema de vivienda, pero tuvo un impacto directo en la calidad de vida en Old North End.

El BCLT movilizó a los dirigentes locales y los defensores del fideicomiso del suelo para que ejercieran presión sobre la legislatura para eliminar las leyes de responsabilidad de los terrenos abandonados. Entonces, se pasó los años que siguieron redesarrollando las áreas contaminadas, restaurando las propiedades abandonadas y arruinadas para su uso comunitario, y alquilando los espacios a organizaciones sin fines de lucro que operaban un banco de alimentos, una guardería infantil y un centro para personas ancianas. El redesarrollo de los terrenos abandonados también dio lugar a una cooperativa de vivienda de 40 unidades y un parque pequeño. El fideicomiso de suelo siguió desarrollando más usos no residenciales cuando reconoció un beneficio claro para el barrio. Su último proyecto, completado en sociedad con muchas otras organizaciones locales, fue la creación del Centro Comunitario de Old North End.

Foco en la permanencia

En 2006, el Fideicomiso de Suelo Comunitario de Burlington y Lake Champlain Housing Development Corporation se fusionaron para formar el Fideicomiso de Vivienda de Champlain (CHT, por su sigla en inglés). Estas entidades pudieron preservar y proteger una masa crítica de unidades en Old North End porque cada propiedad que compraban y mejoraban permanecería asequible por siempre. Las restricciones de reventa que protegían a los compradores de ingresos bajos y a los inquilinos no desaparecerían en 15, 30 o incluso 50 años.

En el mundo de la vivienda asequible, la permanencia es la excepción en lugar de la regla. Según el programa, las regulaciones federales permiten que las restricciones basadas en ingreso venzan después de 20 o 30 años. Muchas jurisdicciones locales y estatales no las exigen pasados los 15 años. Cuando los proyectos de Crédito Fiscal para Viviendas de Bajos Ingresos (LIHTC, por su sigla en inglés) creados en la década de 1990 alcanzan el fin de su período de asequibilidad, los alquileres ascienden a las tasas del mercado y los inquilinos enfrentan el desalojo, los proveedores de vivienda se ven forzados a pedir dinero público para comprar o reemplazar dichas propiedades. Cuando la asequibilidad se esfuma en unas pocas décadas, es extremadamente difícil mantener el statu quo, y ni hablar de construir unidades nuevas para el número creciente de personas abrumadas por los costos de las viviendas.

Con la intención de lograr el máximo retorno de las inversiones de los contribuyentes en viviendas asequibles, en 1989, la Junta de la Ciudad de Burlington había estipulado que ningún proyecto con financiamiento del Fondo de Fideicomiso para la Vivienda que se hubiera creado recientemente sería asequible de forma perpetua. En términos fiscales, los republicanos conservadores encontraron valor en pagar una sola vez, en vez de en repetidas ocasiones, por cada unidad de vivienda asequible. En el futuro, el BCLT no necesitaría recurrir a los Fondos de Fideicomiso para la Vivienda para comprar propiedades previamente subsidiadas a fin de mantener su asequibilidad. La política también existe a nivel estatal. Todos los proyectos que se construyan en Vermont con dinero público quedarán por fuera del mercado privado para siempre (Libby 2006).

Este nuevo desarrollo de construcción en espacios vacíos cuenta con unidades dedicadas con precios más bajos que los del mercado, tal y como exige la ordenanza de zonificación inclusiva de la ciudad. Crédito: Julie Campoli.

 

Durante el transcurso de una década, los conceptos de preservación de la vivienda, dominio compartido y asequibilidad permanente ganaron adhesión pública y se normalizaron para los funcionarios locales y los legisladores estatales. En 1990, la ciudad aprobó una ordenanza de zonificación inclusiva que exige que los desarrolladores que construyen proyectos con cinco o más unidades destinen un 15 o 20 por ciento del total a alquileres o venta a tasas inferiores a las del mercado. El desarrollador puede subsidiar esas unidades de varias formas: cobrando precios más altos para las unidades a precio de mercado, utilizando fondos federales o estatales, o asociándose con una fundación sin fines de lucro para la vivienda. A cambio, el desarrollador puede hacer más denso el proyecto y esperar alguna exención de comisiones. Entre 1990 y 2019, 141 de las 551 unidades de vivienda construidas en Old North End fueron asequibles bajo la ordenanza de zonificación inclusiva.

Una cultura de apoyo

Esta situación trajo aparejada una creencia de que las inversiones en las personas, en su vivienda, salud y bienestar, eran esenciales. El interés en la prosperidad compartida creó un terreno fértil para muchas otras organizaciones sin fines de lucro que trabajan para dar un techo y asistencia a residentes de ingresos bajos. Antes de que el BCLT existiera, la Cathedral Square construía y gestionaba viviendas asequibles para alquilar a personas ancianas, y ofrecía servicios como Comidas sobre ruedas (Meals on Wheels). Hoy en día, 74 de sus unidades se encuentran en Old North End, donde ofrece departamentos independientes para que vivan personas ancianas, casas para adultos que viven con desafíos de salud mental, departamentos para personas que están saliendo del estado de sinhogarismo y viviendas para familias cuyos padres están terminando sus estudios. El Howard Center, un proveedor de servicios para la salud mental, la discapacidad en el desarrollo y el consumo de sustancias, con 158 años de antigüedad, que se extiende a lo largo de todo el país, se asocia con Cathedral Square para ofrecer viviendas colectivas con asistencia.

El Comité de Refugio Temporal (COTS) se lanzó durante la administración de Sanders para ayudar a las personas sin hogar. Hoy en día, ofrece 29 habitaciones transicionales para residentes únicos y departamentos de una cama, un refugio para cinco familias en tres ubicaciones diferentes, y una estación de día que ofrece almuerzos calientes, duchas, servicios de lavandería, talleres, asesoramiento para el trabajo y la vivienda, y acceso a computadoras.

En 1988, la organización sin fines de lucro Housing Vermont, empezó a crear viviendas para alquilar por medio de asociaciones con comunidades y el sector privado. Como el BCLT, expandió su misión en respuesta a la necesidad: redesarrolló edificios históricos de uso mixto ociosos y vacantes en el centro de Vermont, realizó inversiones de capital, y otorgó préstamos para el desarrollo comunitario y servicios de energía. Si bien su área de servicios ahora se extiende a todo el norte de New England (como Evernorth), aún contribuye con el grupo de viviendas de asequibilidad permanente de Old North End.

Muchas otras organizaciones se centran en apoyar la salud y la seguridad de los residentes de Old North End, entre ellas, Feeding Chittenden, que opera un banco de alimentos, un programa de comidas calientes y un programa de formación laboral culinaria; el Centro de Salud Comunitario, que brinda atención médica y dental sin costo o a una escala variable; y Vermont Legal Aid, que brinda asistencia sin costo para quienes enfrentan situaciones de desalojo, discriminación, bancarrota u otro problema legal.

Los residentes de ingresos bajos pueden acceder a transporte a bajo costo por medio de los programas Everybody Bikes o Good News Garage, que reacondicionan y revenden bicicletas o autos donados. Pathways Vermont brinda apoyo de pares para problemas de salud mental. Outright Vermont, una organización estatal que apoya a jóvenes del colectivo LGTBQ+, tiene su sede en el barrio. Steps to End Domestic Violence (Pasos para terminar la violencia doméstica) ofrece refugio, una línea de crisis, asesoramiento legal y educación. El centro comunitario Sara Holbrook Community Center brinda un espacio seguro y educativo en Old North End desde 1937, con servicios de guardería a la salida del colegio, campamentos de verano, un centro para adolescentes, un banco de alimentos y otros programas.

Estas políticas junto con las organizaciones ayudan a garantizarles a los residentes de Old North End el acceso no solo a la vivienda sino también a alimentos, atención sanitaria, asistencia legal y financiera, apoyo emocional, enriquecimiento, y al sentido de comunidad que los ayudará a superar los desafíos diarios y mejorar sus expectativas.

Priorizar a las personas frente a las ganancias

En las décadas de 1980 y 1990, antes de que Old North End se volviera atractivo para los no locales, la mayoría de las viviendas eran “viviendas asequibles que aparecían de forma natural”. Por lo general, esto significa propiedades multifamiliares de clase B y C para alquilar a precios de mercado adecuados para personas de ingresos medios y bajos. En Old North End, esto significó viviendas para trabajadores construidas en el siglo anterior que no eran lujosas ni modernas.

La mayoría de los propietarios eran residentes locales que poseían solo algunas propiedades (Quigley 2019). Una excepción fue Stu McGowan, que generó un vínculo muy profundo con Old North End después de mudarse allí en 1984 y quiso ayudar a prevenir el desplazamiento. Hasta 2019, McGowan poseía 78 unidades de vivienda en 31 propiedades de Old North End, por un valor de US$ 10,4 millones. Logró generar una ganancia ordenada vendiendo a inversores externos que se comunican con él al menos una vez a la semana. Se hicieron cálculos sobre la escasez de viviendas en Burlington y la popularidad de Old North End, y se descubrió lo que McGowan ya sabía: también podía hacer mucho más dinero si aumentaba los alquileres.

Pero no lo hizo ni lo hará. Tiene una política estricta en contra de esto, a pesar de renunciar a unos US$ 100.000 de ganancia por año. Su modelo de negocio es altamente inusual en un mercado inmobiliario con alta demanda. Invierte lo suficiente en sus departamentos para que sean seguros y limpios (aislamiento, un sistema nuevo de calefacción, una capa de pintura nueva), pero no lo suficiente como para forzar un aumento sustancial del alquiler. Excepto por este portfolio amplio, la ética de McGowan no es diferente a la de muchos otros propietarios locales que invirtieron en algunas propiedades cerca de su vivienda y “las cuidaron bastante, pero no se pasaron con nada”, dijo. “Existen muchos propietarios con consciencia. Y hay dos razones: una, quieren hacer las cosas bien, y otra es que no quieren perder a los inquilinos buenos, porque los propietarios pequeños no pueden lidiar con las rotaciones de inquilinos”.

Lo más importante es caer en el momento oportuno. Si McGowan hubiera llegado a Old North End 20 años más tarde, probablemente no se hubiese vuelto el propietario local de 78 viviendas. Casi con certeza, su cartera estaría en manos de inversores externos. Incluso no hubiese podido afrontar el costo de vivir allí. “Compramos un dúplex en 1989”, explica. “Pagamos US$ 130.000 por él. Y ahora vale US$ 750.000. No soy pobre, pero aún no soy rico. No podría pagar la hipoteca de esta vivienda en este momento si tuviera que comprarla”.

La vivienda asequible que aparece naturalmente depende de un mercado con poca demanda. E incluso si está en manos de propietarios con una mentalidad comunitaria como McGowan, no es permanente. Dura siempre y cuando estos se comprometan con priorizar a las personas frente a las ganancias.

¿Qué es suficiente?

Old North End parece estar creciendo y cambiando. Los datos del censo muestran que la población es más diversa en términos raciales, el ingreso promedio creció, los números de viviendas por debajo de la línea de pobreza bajaron y los niveles de delincuencia se redujeron. Lo que es más difícil de medir es si los niveles reducidos de pobreza se deben a la llegada de residentes adinerados al barrio o a que los residentes actuales tienen una mayor seguridad económica.

El urbanista jubilado David White, quien ejerció en este oficio por más de dos décadas, ha observado las tendencias demográficas. “Muchas personas jóvenes e idealistas con medios se están mudando al barrio”, destaca. “Pueden afrontar el precio de adquirir una propiedad”.

De hecho, los datos del censo también indican un aumento del nivel educativo entre los residentes de Old North End. En 2010, el 30 por ciento tenía un título universitario; para el 2016, la cifra era del 39 por ciento. De acuerdo con White, los graduados universitarios se ven atraídos al barrio por los negocios eclécticos y la cultura creada por inmigrantes de Vietnam, África, Nepal y otras partes, y ambos grupos aprovechan la oportunidad que encuentran en el barrio.

¿El esfuerzo de varias décadas ha evitado el triunfo del desplazamiento? Una gran cantidad de observaciones informales sugieren que a las personas les está resultando más caro vivir allí, pero no existen datos que indiquen cuántos residentes se fueron del barrio porque se los desalojó o sus alquileres eran muy costosos. Los hogares se reubican por muchas razones aparte de las financieras, como un cambio en la circunstancia familiar o una oportunidad laboral. Debido a que no existe una autoridad que registre sistemáticamente dichas causas, es imposible confirmar si el cambio en la población se debe al desplazamiento o a una elección.

A woman smiling in the doorway of a blue house
El modelo de dominio compartido del Fideicomiso de Vivienda de Champlain facilita a los compradores de ingresos medios y bajos la compra de viviendas. Crédito: Instituto Lincoln de Políticas de Suelo.

 

Lo que queda claro es que más de 480 hogares de Old North End o próximos al barrio hoy en día tienen un riesgo ampliamente reducido de ser desalojados. Si alquilan un departamento que es propiedad del Fideicomiso de Vivienda de Champlain, Cathedral Square, la Autoridad de la Vivienda de Burlington o Evernorth, sus alquileres mensuales están vinculados a sus ingresos. Si viven en una casa de dominio compartido, sus probabilidades de quedarse en el mismo lugar o mudarse a una vivienda a precio de mercado más costosa son buenas.

El Fideicomiso de Vivienda de Champlain analizó en qué grado está cumpliendo su meta de generar riqueza individual y comunitaria. Un estudio de 2003 concluyó que, si bien los vendedores de viviendas de fideicomiso del suelo obtuvieron menos ganancias de las que podrían con una vivienda a precio de mercado sin restricciones, es considerablemente mejor que la alternativa más probable de alquiler, que no genera retornos. Entre 1988 y 2003, los vendedores de viviendas gozaban de una tasa anualizada de retorno de alrededor del 17 por ciento, recuperaban el pago del anticipo original y luego obtenían una ganancia neta en capital.

En un estudio más reciente, que examina las ventas de 150 viviendas entre 2016 y 2020, se observó que la ganancia de capital promedio fue de US$ 38.300. El CHT también observó que la propiedad de dominio compartido tiende un puente entre alquilar y poseer una vivienda a precio de mercado. Sesenta y ocho por ciento de quienes venden una vivienda de dominio compartido compran su próxima vivienda en el mercado abierto. El dominio que obtuvieron les permite ingresar a un mercado que no estaba disponible para ellos antes, y le ofrece al comprador de su vivienda de fideicomiso de suelo lo mismo.

Brian Pine observó un cambio en Old North End desde varias perspectivas. Se unió a la Oficina de Desarrollo Económico Comunitario cuando se acababa de recibir de la universidad en la década de 1980, trabajó en torno a problemas de la vivienda allí por décadas, dirigió una organización de defensa de la vivienda asequible a nivel nacional, representó al barrio como concejal de la ciudad, y ahora es director de CEDO. Vio prosperar a sus vecinos que compraron viviendas de fideicomiso de suelo en la década de 1980, y cree que el porcentaje elevado de viviendas de asequibilidad permanente ayudó a los residentes de la clase trabajadora a quedarse en el barrio, si así lo deseaban.

Pero para los residentes de ingresos moderados y bajos que ya no viven en una vivienda de asequibilidad permanente, el riesgo de desplazamiento es mayor. Para el 2000, el Fideicomiso de Suelo Comunitario de Burlington había reducido su adquisición de propiedades en Old North End ya que expandió su alcance a otros barrios. Su fusión con Lake Champlain Housing Development Corporation en 2005 aportó un alcance programático y geográfico incluso mayor. Hoy en día alberga a más de 2.500 familias en departamentos para alquilar y viviendas colectivas en tres condados del noroeste de Vermont. En los últimos pocos años, ha iniciado proyectos para construir 560 unidades adicionales. Cincuenta y dos familias compraron una vivienda de fideicomiso de suelo en 2022 y otras recibieron préstamos con un interés bajo o sin interés del CHT para hacer mejoras en viviendas para mano de obra agrícola temporarias o permanentes.

A pesar de que el fideicomiso de suelo continúa administrando sus propiedades en Old North End, no está produciendo viviendas asequibles nuevas allí. El modelo de negocio que funcionó para las organizaciones sin fines de lucro en las décadas pasadas no tiene sentido con precios inmobiliarios más altos y un déficit de parcelas construibles. A pesar del porcentaje relativamente alto de unidades asequibles, estas no están ni cerca de ser suficientes. Aún es posible mudarse a un departamento del CHT, pero las listas de espera son largas y lleva aproximadamente unos 15 meses obtener uno.

Así que, la respuesta a “¿Ha sido suficiente?” depende de con quién se hable. El vecindario está enfrentando una escasez de viviendas dentro de un mercado inmobiliario con alta demanda, se está observando el fenómeno de aburguesamiento, y las necesidades básicas de vivienda y económicas aún son grandes (Jickling 2018). Pero los esfuerzos que se desplegaron por décadas marcaron una enorme diferencia para muchas personas individuales, transformaron una cultura barrial e influenciaron la manera en la que los residentes locales, los dirigentes de la ciudad y los legisladores estatales ven sus responsabilidades relacionadas con el desplazamiento y la asequibilidad.

 


Julie Campoli es una diseñadora urbana, editora y autora que escribe sobre la forma urbana y el paisaje cambiante. Es autora de Made for Walking: Density and Neighborhood Form (Hecho para caminar: formas de vecindarios y densidad) (Instituto Lincoln de Políticas de Suelo 2012) y coautora de Visualizing Density (Visualizar la densidad) (Instituto Lincoln de Políticas de Suelo 2007).

Imagen principal: Old North End, Burlington, Vermont. Crédito: Instituto Lincoln de Políticas de Suelo

 

REFERENCIAS

Davis, John Emmeus, ed. 1990. Building the Progressive City: Third Sector Housing in Burlington. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

Freddie Mac. 2022. “Spotlight on Underserved Markets: Affordable Housing in High-Opportunity Areas.” Washington, DC: Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation.

Jickling, Katie. 2018. “Ready or Not: Is Gentrification Inevitable in Burlington’s Old North End?Seven Days. January 17.

Libby, James M. Jr. 2006. “The Policy Basis Behind Permanently Affordable Housing: A Cornerstone of Vermont’s Housing Policy Since 1987.” Montpelier, Vermont: Vermont Housing and Conservation Board.

Opportunity Insights. “Neighborhoods Matter: Children’s Lives Are Shaped by the Neighborhoods They Grow Up In.” Online research collection. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University.

Quigley, Aidan. 2019. “Who Owns Burlington? The Largest Holdings Are in the Hands of a Few.” VTDigger. November 3.

Torpy, Brenda. 2015. “Champlain Housing Trust.” Case study. Center for Community Land Trust Innovation.

A building painted with the phrase 'Welcome to the ONE Love'

Still the ONE: Lessons from a Small City’s Big Commitment to Affordability

By Julie Campoli, October 18, 2023

 

This fall, the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy is releasing a video and case study about a decades-long effort to create and preserve affordable housing in the Old North End of Burlington, Vermont—a neighborhood some residents affectionately refer to as “the ONE.”

Since the early 1800s, a tight grid of streets in the north end of Burlington, Vermont, has been home to laborers, service workers, and anyone else needing an affordable place to live. The Old North End has been a place of arrival, and also permanence. Its modest apartments and small houses offer both a foothold to newcomers and the chance to stay for generations. Forty years ago, it all could have changed.

The global economic forces of the 1980s had brought the neighborhood low. Poverty and crime were rising, along with unemployment. A few years earlier, in an ill-advised urban renewal scheme, city leaders had condemned and demolished several blocks in an adjacent neighborhood, displacing its tight-knit Italian-American community. Residents and housing advocates feared the Old North End would be the next victim of large-scale redevelopment. “Speculators were buying or optioning properties,” said Brenda Torpy, former director of housing policy for the city. They weren’t interested in building value by improving properties or nurturing businesses: “Their goal was assembling a block where they could tear everything down and make a big move.”

As the local market intensified, Old North End residents were feeling the pressure. Rents were rising as properties changed hands. No tenant protection laws were in place, and previous city administrations had shown little interest in code enforcement. The situation was creating a sense of unease among residents—and it also created a sense of urgency for an administration led by a newly elected mayor, a young progressive named Bernie Sanders.  

The Sanders administration wanted to prevent displacement of working-class residents. That spawned an idea that became an experiment—and eventually, through sustained effort, a reliable method for preserving and producing a critical mass of permanently affordable housing.

While housing was the centerpiece of this effort, the goal was to make life better in many other ways, offering the opportunity to thrive. The dynamic mayor and his young, talented, and tireless staff nurtured public support for universal housing security and implemented a range of programs and policies to achieve it. As the years passed, the city made streetscape improvements and invested in schools, parks, and recreation programs. Burlington’s culture of civic engagement proved fertile ground for nonprofits, which emerged to provide both services—job training, health care, legal aid, recreation, child care, food relief—and emotional support to people facing many challenges beyond paying the rent.


A section of the Old North End, Burlington’s oldest and most densely populated neighborhood. Credit: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

Many cities have addressed the problems of displacement and housing insecurity. But few have attempted such an ambitious and multifaceted strategy over such a long period of time. Leaders in Burlington took a creative approach to seemingly intractable problems. They worked at the grassroots level, relying on neighborhood organizations to communicate needs and build public support. They remained flexible, adjusting their methods to accommodate changing conditions. And they laid the foundation for a housing delivery system that would keep going for years, through changing political leadership and economic conditions.

Today, residents of the Old North End live in a city with good schools, a county unemployment rate of 1.3 percent, a wealth of green space, and a reliable social safety net. Amenities that could typically only be found in wealthier neighborhoods are now embedded within its borders. The place continues to change: many old-timers have left, and well-off newcomers have moved in. But thanks to a generous supply of subsidized housing, it continues to be a safe haven for working people and a gateway for refugees and those in need of greater opportunity.

Identifying the Need

Children who grow up in resource-rich environments have better outcomes in life, research increasingly indicates (Opportunity Insights). Along with supportive families, children need the social and physical infrastructure found in prosperous and cohesive communities. Defined by researchers and policymakers as “high-opportunity areas,” these places offer excellent schools, community gathering spaces, job options, and vital services like public transportation, medical care, daycare, and healthy food. Their strong social networks nurture resilience and provide a cushion for life’s challenges.

Unfortunately, the people who need these places the most can’t afford to move into them. And they often can’t afford to stay in neighborhoods that are transforming into high-opportunity areas. In booming metros, a rising tide of wealth emanating from city centers brings safer, more attractive streets and many services to long-neglected urban neighborhoods. But the tide of investment rarely brings permanently affordable housing. Rising rents push low-income residents out to the places they can afford, which offer fewer of the qualities that boost upward mobility. Income-restricted, permanently affordable housing would prevent that displacement and, in other contexts, provide access to already prosperous neighborhoods. But only 7 percent of the 74,000 subsidized housing units in the United States are located in high-opportunity areas (Freddie Mac 2022). The rest are in under-resourced places.

When the demand for housing rises and spills into neighborhoods that have suffered from disinvestment, the early signs are not obvious. Investors buy the relatively inexpensive properties but don’t immediately make improvements, putting upward pressure on the housing market without a visible sign of change. By the time the signifiers of gentrification—renovated buildings and upscale businesses—appear, market prices have risen to a level that makes preserving and producing affordable housing more challenging.

Luckily, leaders in Burlington recognized displacement risk before it was too late to prevent it at a meaningful scale. But they soon faced another question: how could they pay for the anti-displacement efforts they had in mind?

The 1980s had already brought a significant reduction in government spending as the Reagan administration slashed budgets, proclaiming that the market rather than the government would solve persistent social problems. Mayor Sanders believed otherwise, but the fiscal reality—radically reduced federal assistance programs—required an alternative approach to funding.

Finding Funding

In 1984, Sanders directed $200,000 in surplus funds to operate the newly formed Burlington Community Land Trust (BCLT), an initiative intended to expand homeownership. Two million-dollar loans from the city’s employee retirement fund and a loan from a local bank got the organization’s work underway. In the coming years, the city obtained funds from federal programs such as the Community Development Block Grant and HOME programs.

Many working-class residents of the Old North End secured their tenure by buying a BCLT shared-equity home. Through the community land trust (CLT) model—which was pioneered in Georgia in the 1960s and has since been adopted nationwide—individuals buy homes on land that is owned by the CLT. The homeowners agree to sell the property at a restricted price to keep it permanently affordable, but can build equity during the time they own it.


Burlington Mayor Bernie Sanders, right, with Alderman Terry Bouricius at a polling place in 1983. Sanders served as mayor from 1981 to 1989, working with Bouricius and others to implement policies intended to ensure long-term affordability. Credit:  AP Photo/Donna Light.

Others who weren’t ready or able to own a home found affordable apartments in buildings owned by the Lake Champlain Housing Development Corporation (LCHDC). Like the BCLT, the LCHDC was created by the Sanders administration and launched as a nonprofit, but its mission was to provide rental housing. These institutions, along with many other nonprofits, programs, and policies that emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, were part of a multitude of efforts by officials, activists, and others to help build community and individual wealth in the Old North End.

The city’s newly created Community and Economic Development Office (CEDO) orchestrated these efforts. With housing prices rising at twice the rate of incomes, CEDO’s focus was on housing—more specifically, protecting the vulnerable, preserving existing affordable housing, and creating homes that low- and moderate-income people could afford. CEDO crafted a flood of renter protection ordinances that were promoted by the housing advocates at BCLT and LCHDC, and approved by an increasingly progressive city council (Davis 1990).

In 1984, the council passed a Fair Housing Ordinance to prevent renter discrimination. This was followed by a law curbing exorbitant security deposit fees. The minimum housing code, which was outdated and sparsely enforced, was overhauled in 1986. That same year, Burlington voters approved an anti-speculation tax (although it was later rejected by the legislature). This was followed in 1987 by a condominium conversion ordinance, which imposed an impact fee on developers who displaced tenants while converting rental housing to condos or cooperatives.

CEDO staffers became creative and persistent grant applicants, obtaining funds from Housing Development Action Grants, Section 8, and rental assistance programs, and cobbling together a budget to keep BCLT efforts moving until a steady stream of money emerged in the next decade. In 1989, Burlington voters agreed to a penny increase on their property tax rate, to be dedicated to affordable housing. The money would be deposited into a Housing Trust Fund and used by the city to add to the supply of permanently affordable homes.


Leaders in Burlington used a flexible funding model to support their efforts to preserve affordable housing. Credit: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

Inspired by what was happening in Burlington, and concerned about land and housing speculation statewide, then-Governor Madeleine Kunin urged the legislature to create a state housing trust fund. In 1988, it established the Vermont Housing and Conservation Board (VHCB). Funded with a percentage of the state property transfer tax, VHCB began to disperse millions of dollars to nonprofits throughout Vermont with the combined goal of preserving both open space and affordable housing. VHCB shared the commitment to permanent affordability. In fact, the emphasis on permanence had seeped sinto a growing number of state laws and plans, helped along by Kunin’s administration.

While BCLT needed money for its operations, it also needed to convince financial institutions to lend money to its homebuyers. At the time, the community land trust model of dual ownership was a new and untested mortgage product. It was not clear that a market for shared-equity homes existed, which made appraisers confused and lenders uneasy. BCLT pushed the Vermont Housing Finance Agency (VHFA), which was tasked with enabling homeownership for moderate- and low-income residents, to help break the logjam. An early agreement crafted by VHFA allowed banks to take both land and house in the event of a default.

BCLT accepted these terms to get things started, and over time, as it became apparent that shared-equity homes were a safe bet—there was not a single foreclosure in the first four years—VHFA and local banks became enthusiastic lenders, creating much more favorable products. By 2015, VHFA had written more than $80 million in mortgages for land trust owners, with banks throughout the state following their lead (Torpy 2015).

Responding to the Community

A major strength of the Burlington Community Land Trust was its ability to recognize the barriers to secure housing and improvise ways to overcome them. According to Brenda Torpy, longtime director of the organization, the question was not, “What’s the business plan?” but, “What is the need?” BCLT strove to meet the community where it was and find a way to fulfill its needs (Torpy 2015).

When it became clear that not everyone wanted or could afford a single-family house, even at a subsidized price, BCLT dove into the challenge of offering ownership to apartment-dwellers. Just as they had pioneered a model for dual ownership of single-family homes, BCLT staff sought a way to make ownership possible within the structure of a multifamily building. The likely strategy was to create a cooperative, in which residents share ownership of their apartment building, on land owned by BCLT. As with the single-family home model, their monthly payments would build equity.

At the time, condominiums were a new concept, and there was no enabling legislation in Vermont for limited equity cooperatives. BCLT eventually persuaded state lawmakers to make cooperatives legal. It created a handful of cooperatives in the neighborhood, but it became apparent that the model was not popular. People found the prospect of coordinating with fellow residents on the management and maintenance of a building too daunting. They preferred a responsible landlord. Although the organization hadn’t set out to act as a landlord, by the 1990s BCLT owned a growing number of rental properties, complementing the efforts of the Lake Champlain Housing Development Corporation and providing the apartments Old North End residents needed.

At the same time, it moved in another necessary direction. During the savings and loan crisis of the 1990s, banks and landlords of industrial buildings walked away from their mortgages, leaving a swath of the Old North End vacant. State environmental laws assigning liability for cleanup of brownfield sites to lenders prevented any private investment in the properties, which were decrepit and attracting criminal behavior (Torpy 2015). This was not a housing issue, but it had a direct impact on quality of life in the Old North End. BCLT rallied local leaders and land trust supporters to lobby the legislature to remove brownfield liability laws. Then it spent the next several years redeveloping the polluted sites, returning the abandoned and blighted properties to community use, and renting spaces to nonprofits who operated a food shelf, a child-care center, and a senior center. The brownfield redevelopment also yielded a 40-unit housing cooperative and a small park.


The Bright Street Co-op, a 40-unit affordable housing complex built on a former brownfield. Credit: Courtesy of Champlain Housing Trust.

The land trust went on to develop more nonresidential uses when it recognized a clear benefit to the neighborhood. Its latest project, completed in partnership with many other local organizations, was the creation of the Old North End Community Center.

Focusing on Permanence

The Burlington Community Land Trust and Lake Champlain Housing Development Corporation merged in 2006 to form the Champlain Housing Trust (CHT). These entities were able to preserve and protect a critical mass of units in the Old North End because every property they purchased and improved would remain affordable forever. Resale restrictions protecting low-income buyers and tenants would not disappear in 15, 30, or even 50 years.

In the world of affordable housing, permanence is the exception rather than the rule. Depending on the program, federal regulations allow income-based restrictions to expire after 20 or 30 years. Many state and local jurisdictions do not require them beyond 15 years. As Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) projects built in the 1990s reach the end of their affordability period, rents jump to market rates, and low-income tenants face eviction, housing providers are forced to seek public money to buy or replace those properties. When affordability vanishes within a few decades, it’s extremely difficult to maintain the status quo, let alone build new homes for the growing number of people burdened by housing costs.

Wanting to achieve maximum return on the taxpayers’ investment in affordable housing, the Burlington City Council had stipulated in 1989 that any projects financed from the newly formed Housing Trust Fund would be affordable in perpetuity. Fiscally conservative Republicans saw the value in paying once, not repeatedly, for each affordable housing unit. In the future, BCLT would not need to dip into Housing Trust funds to purchase previously subsidized properties in order to maintain their affordability. The policy is in place at the state level as well. Every project built in Vermont using public money will stay out of the private market forever (Libby 2006).

Over the course of a decade, the concepts of housing preservation, shared equity, and permanent affordability gained public support and became normalized for local officials and state policymakers. In 1990, the city passed an inclusionary zoning ordinance requiring developers who build projects with five or more units to dedicate 15 to 20 percent of the total to rent or sell at below-market rates. The developer can subsidize those units in various ways, charging higher prices for the market-rate units, tapping state or federal funds, or partnering with a housing nonprofit. In return, the developer can make the project denser and expect some fee waivers. Between 1990 and 2019, 141 of the 551 housing units built in the Old North End were made affordable under the inclusionary zoning ordinance.


This new infill development has dedicated below-market units, as required by the city’s inclusionary zoning ordinance. Credit: Julie Campoli.

A Culture of Support

Alongside this came a belief that investments in people—in their housing, health, and wellbeing—were essential. The interest in shared prosperity created fertile ground for many other nonprofits working to shelter and support low-income residents. Before the BCLT existed, Cathedral Square was building and managing affordable rental housing for seniors, and offering services like Meals on Wheels. Today, 74 of its units are located in the Old North End, where it provides senior independent living apartments, homes for adults living with mental health challenges, apartments for individuals transitioning out of homelessness, and housing for families whose parents are completing their education. The 158-year-old Howard Center, a provider of mental health, developmental disability, and substance abuse services throughout the county, partners with Cathedral Square to offer supportive group housing.

The Committee on Temporary Shelter (COTS) was launched during the Sanders administration to serve people without homes. Today it provides 29 transitional single-resident rooms and one-bedroom apartments, a shelter for five families at three different locations, and a day station that offers hot lunches, showers, laundry facilities, workshops, job and housing counseling, and access to computers. In 1988, the nonprofit Housing Vermont began creating rental housing through partnerships with communities and the private sector. Like BCLT, it expanded its mission in response to need, redeveloping vacant and underused historic mixed-use buildings in Vermont’s downtowns, as well as providing equity investing, community development lending, and energy services. While its service area now extends to all of northern New England (as Evernorth), it still contributes to the pool of permanently affordable homes in the Old North End.

Many other organizations focus on supporting the health and safety of Old North End residents, including Feeding Chittenden, which operates a food shelf, a hot meal program, and a culinary job training program; Community Health Centers, which provides free or sliding-scale medical and dental care; and Vermont Legal Aid, which provides free assistance to those facing eviction, discrimination, bankruptcy, and other legal problems.

Low-income residents can access low-cost transportation through Everybody Bikes and Good News Garage, which refurbish and resell donated bicycles and cars. Pathways Vermont provides peer support for mental health challenges. Outright Vermont, a statewide organization supporting LGBTQ+ youth, is based in the neighborhood. Steps to End Domestic Violence provides shelter, a crisis line, legal advocacy, and education. The Sara Holbrook Community Center has provided a safe and educational space in the Old North End since 1937 with after-school care, summer camps, a teen drop-in center, a food pantry, and other programs.

Together these policies and organizations help ensure that Old North End residents can access not only housing but also food, health care, legal and financial assistance, emotional support, enrichment, and the sense of community that will help them overcome daily challenges and improve their prospects.

Putting People Before Profits

In the 1980s and 1990s, before the Old North End became attractive to outsiders, most of the housing was “naturally occurring affordable housing.” Typically this means older Class B and Class C multifamily rental properties with market-rate rents suitable for low- and moderate-income people. In the Old North End, this meant worker housing built in the previous century that was neither fancy nor up to date.

The majority of landlords were local residents who owned only a few properties (Quigley 2019). One exception was Stu McGowan, who became deeply attached to the Old North End after moving there in 1984 and wanted to help prevent displacement. As of 2019, McGowan owned 78 housing units in 31 properties in the Old North End, at a value of $10.4 million. He could make a tidy profit by selling to the outside investors who contact him at least once a week. They have run the numbers on Burlington’s housing shortage and the Old North End’s popularity, and discovered what McGowan already knows: he could also make a lot more money by raising rents.

But he hasn’t and he won’t. He has a strict policy against it, despite leaving about $100,000 on the table every year. His business model is highly unusual in a hot real estate market. He invests enough in his apartments to make them safe and clean—insulation, a new heating system, a fresh coat of paint—but not enough to force a substantial rent increase. Except for his large portfolio, McGowan’s ethic isn’t different from many other local landlords who invested in a few properties around their home and “took good care of them, but didn’t go overboard with any of it,” he said. “There’s a lot of conscientious landlords out there. And there’s two reasons: one, they want to do the right thing, and the other thing is, they don’t want to lose good tenants, because small landlords can’t deal with tenant turnover.”

Timing is everything. If McGowan had arrived in the Old North End 20 years later, he likely would not have become a local landlord to 78 households. His portfolio would almost certainly be in the hands of outside investors. He might not even have been able to afford to live there himself: “We bought a duplex back in ’89,” he explains. “We paid $130,000 for it. And it’s worth $750,000 now. I’m not poor, but I’m not rich yet. I could not afford the mortgage on this house right now if I had to buy it.”

Naturally occurring affordable housing depends on a cool market. And even when it’s owned by community-minded landlords like McGowan, it’s not permanent. It lasts only as long as the individual is committed to putting people before profits.

Was It Enough?

The Old North End appears to be growing and changing. Census data show that the population is more racially diverse, median incomes have grown, numbers of households below the poverty line shrank, and crime levels dipped. What’s harder to gauge is whether the lower poverty levels are a result of wealthier residents moving in or current residents enjoying more economic security.

Retired city planner David White, who served in that office for over two decades, has watched the demographic trends unfold. “Many young, idealistic folks with means are moving in,” he notes. “They can afford to acquire property.”

In fact, Census data also indicate an increasing educational level among Old North End residents. In 2010, 30 percent had a college degree; by 2016, that figure was 39 percent. According to White, college graduates are drawn to the neighborhood by the eclectic businesses and culture built by immigrants from Vietnam, Africa, Nepal, and other places, with both groups taking advantage of the opportunity they are finding in the neighborhood.

Has the decades-long effort to prevent displacement succeeded? Plenty of anecdotal evidence suggests that people are finding it more expensive to live there, but there’s no data indicating how many residents moved out because they were evicted or their rent was too high. Households relocate for many reasons other than financial, such as a change in family circumstance or a job opportunity. Because there is no authority systematically recording those reasons, it’s impossible to confirm whether the changing population is a result of displacement or choice.

What’s clear is that over 480 households in or next to the Old North End now have a vastly reduced risk of being forced out. If they rent an apartment owned by the Champlain Housing Trust, Cathedral Square, the Burlington Housing Authority, or Evernorth, their monthly rents are tied to their income. If they live in a shared-equity home, their odds of staying put or moving to a more expensive market-rate home are good.

A woman smiling in the doorway of a blue house
The shared-equity model has made it possible for residents like this Champlain Housing Trust homeowner to remain in the Old North End. Credit: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

Champlain Housing Trust has evaluated how well it is meeting its goal of generating community and individual wealth. A 2003 study concluded that while the sellers of land trust homes earned less profit than they might with an unrestricted, market-rate home, it’s considerably better than the most likely alternative of renting, which yields no returns. Between 1988 and 2003, home sellers enjoyed an annualized rate of return of about 17 percent, recouping their original down payment and then realizing a net gain in equity.

A more recent study, looking at sales of 150 homes between 2016 and 2020, found the average equity gain to be $38,300. CHT has also found that shared-equity homeownership provides a bridge between renting and owning a market-rate home. Sixty-eight percent of those selling a shared-equity home buy their next home on the open market. The equity they’ve earned allows them to enter a market that was not available to them earlier, and offers the buyer of their land trust home the same.

Brian Pine has observed change in the Old North End from several perspectives. He joined the Community Economic Development Office fresh out of college in the 1980s, worked on housing issues there for decades, led a statewide affordable housing advocacy organization, represented the neighborhood as a city councilor, and is now the director of CEDO. He has watched his neighbors who bought land trust homes in the 1980s thrive, and he believes the high percentage of permanently affordable housing helped working-class residents remain if they chose to.

But for low- and moderate-income residents who do not already live in a permanently affordable home, the risk of displacement is higher. By 2000, the Burlington Community Land Trust had slowed its acquisition of properties in the Old North End as it expanded its reach into other neighborhoods. Its merger with the Lake Champlain Housing Development Corporation in 2005 brought an even greater geographic and programmatic scope. It now houses over 2,500 families in rental apartments and group homes throughout the three counties of northwestern Vermont. In the past few years, it has initiated projects to build an additional 560 units. Fifty-two families bought a land trust home in 2022 and others received no- or low-interest loans from CHT to make improvements to manufactured and farm labor housing.

Although the land trust continues to steward its properties in the Old North End, it is not producing new affordable housing there. The business model that worked for nonprofits in past decades doesn’t make sense with higher real estate prices and a shortage of buildable parcels. Despite the relatively high percentage of affordable units, there is not nearly enough. It’s still possible to move into a CHT apartment, but the waitlists are long and it takes approximately 15 months to get one.

So the answer to “has it been enough?” depends on who you talk to. The neighborhood is facing a housing shortage within a hot real estate market, gentrification is occurring, and basic housing and economic needs are still great (Jickling 2018). But the efforts that unfolded over decades made a huge difference for many individual people, transformed a neighborhood culture, and influenced the way local residents, city leaders, and state policymakers view their responsibilities related to displacement and affordability.

 


 

Julie Campoli is an urban designer, editor, and author who writes about urban form and the changing landscape. She is the author of Made for Walking: Density and Neighborhood Form (Lincoln Institute of Land Policy 2012) and coauthor of Visualizing Density (Lincoln Institute of Land Policy 2007).

Lead image: Old North End, Burlington, Vermont. Source: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

 

REFERENCES

Davis, John Emmeus, ed. 1990. Building the Progressive City: Third Sector Housing in Burlington. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

Freddie Mac. 2022. “Spotlight on Underserved Markets: Affordable Housing in High-Opportunity Areas.” Washington, DC: Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation.

Jickling, Katie. 2018. “Ready or Not: Is Gentrification Inevitable in Burlington’s Old North End?Seven Days. January 17.

Libby, James M. Jr. 2006. “The Policy Basis Behind Permanently Affordable Housing: A Cornerstone of Vermont’s Housing Policy Since 1987.” Montpelier, Vermont: Vermont Housing and Conservation Board.

Opportunity Insights. “Neighborhoods Matter: Children’s Lives Are Shaped by the Neighborhoods They Grow Up In.” Online research collection. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University.

Quigley, Aidan. 2019. “Who Owns Burlington? The Largest Holdings Are in the Hands of a Few.” VTDigger. November 3.

Torpy, Brenda. 2015. “Champlain Housing Trust.” Case study. Center for Community Land Trust Innovation.

Mayor’s Desk

A New Deal in Delhi

By Anthony Flint, September 19, 2023

Don’t miss the Mayor’s Desk book, coming this fall! 

With a population of nearly 33 million and growing, Delhi is the second-largest metropolitan area in the world after Tokyo, and on track to become number one. Shelly Oberoi, 39, was elected mayor of the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD), a governing body representing some 20 million of those people, in early 2023. Born in the capital city, Oberoi was named a vice president of the women’s wing of the anti-corruption Aam Aadmi Party before becoming a ward city councilor in 2022. Oberoi, who had to run for the mayoral post several times due to parliamentary voting challenges, promised that “Delhi will be cleaned and transformed” in her tenure. She has been an assistant professor at Delhi University and Mumbai’s Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies, and has authored several research papers on corporate social responsibility, global finance, and other topics.

Anthony Flint: You’re the first mayor in a decade to oversee all of central city Delhi, after reunification of the Municipal Corporation of Delhi. What kind of governing challenges and opportunities come along with that?

Shelly Oberoi: Governing the Municipal Corporation after its unification has come along with a fair share of challenges and opportunities. On one hand, centralization of powers allows for streamlined decision-making, enhanced accountability, and improved collaboration across departments. While centralization allows for more efficiency, it also requires careful planning to ensure equitable distribution of resources to address the diverse needs of different areas within Delhi. Balancing these needs and optimizing resource allocation is a significant challenge that we are addressing at the moment. On the other hand, unification has also offered us an opportunity for policy alignment. With a unified municipal corporation, we can now align policies and regulations across all areas of Delhi. Policy alignment allows us to address issues such as education, property tax, and new initiatives in a coordinated manner, leading to more effective civil planning and development across the city. This enables consistent implementation of rules and regulations, creating a level playing field and ensuring fairness and transparency in governance.

Mayor Shelly Oberoi. Credit: Municipal Corporation of Delhi.

AF: You said upon being elected that you would work “to make Delhi the city that it should have been”—what does that vision look like, and what are the biggest obstacles to achieving it?

SO: My vision for Delhi is based upon the Aam Aadmi Party’s 10 guarantees, as announced by our National Convenor and Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal. These guarantees reflect the aspirations of the people and prioritize the overall well-being of the city. We have envisioned a clean and beautiful Delhi, free from the blight of landfills, where waste management systems are streamlined and cleanliness is promoted throughout the city. We are establishing a culture of transparency and accountability, ensuring a corruption-free Municipal Corporation of Delhi. Our vision also includes providing a permanent solution to the problem of parking through efficient management systems and addressing the issue of stray animals with compassionate and sustainable measures. Moreover, we aim to have well-maintained roads that prioritize safety and smooth traffic flow, improving the overall commuting experience for residents.

The work of the Aam Aadmi Party’s state government in Delhi is already talked about globally, particularly in the fields of education and healthcare. Chief Minister Kejriwal has administered revolutions in the landscape of India’s public education and public health sectors. People have started believing that government facilities can be trusted, that they can offer them the equal standard of services for free that private facilities do at exorbitant prices.

Building on this momentum, we are working with a special focus on transforming schools and hospitals into centers of excellence. We are also enhancing parks across the city, creating green spaces for citizens to enjoy. In a welcome change, we are ensuring regular salaries for workers and offering them a better environment within the MCD to promote job security and build a motivated workforce. Simplifying the process of obtaining licenses for traders, creating a welcoming business environment, and establishing designated vending zones for street vendors are also part of our vision.

However, we acknowledge the challenges posed by rapid urbanization, budgetary constraints, stakeholder engagement, and coordination among different agencies. By recognizing these challenges and proactively addressing them, we can work toward making Delhi the city it should have always been—a thriving, inclusive, and sustainable metropolis that residents can be proud to call home and, above all, the number-one capital of the world.

AF: Regarding air quality—brought to international attention by such documentary films as All That Breathes—what are some short-term solutions? Please also comment on your approach regarding garbage and landfills. The two issues are related, in that the new waste-to-energy plant will seemingly help solve one problem while further contributing to air pollution.

SO: Air quality is indeed a pressing concern for Delhi, and addressing it requires a multi-faceted approach that incorporates both short-term and long-term solutions. However, air doesn’t belong to any one geographical boundary; a lot of factors that arise in our neighboring states adversely impact Delhi. Thus, the challenge needs a concerted and coordinated approach from all stakeholders, including the central government and neighboring state governments.

The Delhi government is leading an extensive effort to reduce air pollution through its Summer and Winter Action Plans. The government accordingly decides upon short- and long-term solutions as part of these action plans, be it stopping dust pollution and industrial pollution, improving on solid waste management, or conducting real-time source apportionment studies. Under these action plans, the MCD has been delegated the responsibility of keeping a check on the factors under its domain and maintaining vigils on smaller roads under its domain. The state government regularly convenes review meetings and the MCD has extended its unconditional support to help with these efforts. It is important to also note that due to these efforts, the air pollution levels in Delhi have already seen a welcome change.

As for garbage and landfills, we are actively working upon improving the city’s solid waste management system by means of promoting waste segregation, installing fixed-compactor transfer stations, and shutting down neighborhood garbage dump yards. We have also set a plan to eliminate the three garbage landfills of the city. Of this we are on track to completely clear off the Okhla landfill by the end of this year and the Bhalswa landfill by the first half of next year. These targets have been set by the state as part of a dedicated approach to clean the city, and Chief Minister Kejriwal has been monitoring the daily progress to further strengthen MCD’s resolve toward this mission.

AF: Are there any policies in the works to address the city’s notorious traffic congestion? How does that fit in with your overall plan to enhance infrastructure and make the city more resilient?

SO: Traffic is mostly beyond the domain of the MCD. In Delhi, the municipal body only looks after minor roads and neighborhood lanes, whose upkeep we are working upon with utmost commitment ever since taking over the reins. Along with the help of our councilors and local citizens, we are identifying all such roads and lanes that need any sort of repair and ensuring that the task is dealt with. At the larger level, the Delhi Government’s Public Works Department and Transport Department are doing a great job of reducing traffic congestion in the city by upgrading the existing infrastructure, building new flyovers and underpasses, and introducing electric buses.

AF: The Delhi metro area—with a population of nearly 33 million and growing by nearly 3 percent per year—seems to warrant a more centralized form of governance. Is there any chance of reform to allow mayors in India to manage their cities as leaders do in major cities in other parts of the world?

SO: In principle, I do recognize the need for reforms that empower city leaders to effectively manage their cities, similar to the governance models observed in major cities around the world. However, the current governance structure in India has its limitations that we respect, and we prefer to mull about within our own landscape. In theory there is always a chance for reform and exploration of alternative models. We can explore enhancing the capacity of mayors and local authorities through training programs, knowledge sharing, and collaboration with international city management institutions that can equip them with the necessary skills and expertise to effectively lead and manage their cities. We can also promote collaborative governance models that involve active participation of citizens, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders to facilitate better decision-making and ensure that the diverse interests and concerns of the city’s residents are adequately represented.


Anthony Flint is a senior fellow at the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, contributing editor to Land Lines, and host of the Land Matters podcast. 

Lead image: Leaders are working to improve air quality and clear landfills in Delhi, which is on track to become the world’s largest metropolitan area. Credit: PRABHASROY via iStock Editorial/Getty Images Plus.

Other Events

2023 Journalists Forum

November 17, 2023 - November 18, 2023

Cambridge, MA United States

Offered in English

The Lincoln Institute’s 2023 Journalists Forum, held November 17–18 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, explored innovations in housing affordability. Access to affordable housing has become a central issue of our times, with overburdened renters, yawning gaps in ownership rates between minority and white households, and a demand for housing that far outstrips the supply. Journalists covering housing were invited to step back and consider the often-underreported fundamental elements driving the affordability crisis, especially as they relate to land use management and fiscal and financial systems. Over the course of two days, participants explored current policy interventions, innovative solutions, and emergent debates that go to the root causes of the current housing crisis. The Journalist Forum resources are available as an online library.

Media Coverage

Welcome and Opening

Friday, November 17

Speakers

  • George W. “Mac” McCarthy, CEO and president, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy
  • Monté Foster, retail market president New England, TD Bank
  • Keynote: Arthur Jemison, director, Boston Planning & Development Agency

Setting the Stage with an Interactive Discussion: State of the Nation’s Housing

Speakers

  • Daniel McCue, Joint Center for Housing Studies

Further Reading

Interventions: Zoning Reform

As more states from California to Connecticut pursue statewide zoning reform and face backlash by local governments seeking to retain control over land use, it is important to explore: What are the challenges facing states that seek to implement statewide land use reform? What do we know about the effects of changing land use regulations on housing supply and housing prices? When can we realistically expect to observe the results of these policies on the ground?

Speakers

  • Jessie Grogan, associate director, Reduced Poverty and Spatial Inequality, Lincoln Institute
  • Patrick Condon, University of British Columbia
  • Jenny Schuetz, Brookings Institution
  • David Garcia, Terner Center at UC Berkeley
  • Journalist moderator: Diana Lind 

Further Reading

Interventions II: Tax Policy

Cities are considering the effects of their tax systems on housing affordability. In Detroit, a land value tax has been proposed to lower residential taxes and encourage development. A well-functioning property tax based on market value might play a similar role in other jurisdictions. The design of property tax relief programs and homestead exemptions also has important implications for affordability.

Speakers

  • Jay Rising, chief financial officer, City of Detroit
  • Nick Allen, MIT
  • Joan Youngman, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy
  • Ron Rakow, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy
  • Journalist moderator: Liam Dillon 

Further Reading

Interventions III: Institutional Investors

Private sector actors are purchasing residential properties at significant rates, especially in cities with traditionally weak real estate markets. Affordable housing advocates seek to analyze who is buying up local properties, when, where, and over what period, to inform a series of real estate, capital, and other interventions. This session looks at attempts to manage institutional investors who are buying, flipping, or charging often-high rents for properties in legacy cities and elsewhere, using data available through new mapping tools; with special attention to the case study of Cincinnati, where bond financing was used to purchase nearly 200 fixer-uppers, outbidding outside investors.

Speakers

  • Aftab Pureval, Mayor of Cincinnati (on video)
  • Robert J. McGrail, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy
  • Jeff Allenby, Center for Geospatial Solutions, “Who Owns America” initiative
  • David Howard, CEO, National Rental Home Council
  • Journalist moderator: Loren Berlin 

Further Reading

 

Welcome and Opening

Saturday, November 18

 

Speakers

  • Chris Herbert, Joint Center for Housing Studies, Harvard University

State of the Nation’s Housing Design

Speakers

  • Dan D’Oca, Harvard University Graduate School of Design–Joint Center for Housing Studies

Innovations in Financing

After the Community Reinvestment Act and the financial crisis of 2008, a reset has been in the works for both individuals and neighborhoods to access capital, to help close the racial homeownership gap. Should homeownership be so actively encouraged? Will tweaks to the home financing system really have impact? What role can mortgage markets play in facilitating access to housing for households with lower incomes?

Speakers

  • Jim Gray, senior fellow, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, Underserved Mortgage Markets Coalition and Innovations in Manufactured Homes Network (I’m HOME) program
  • Chrystal Kornegay, MassHousing
  • Majurial (MJ) Watkins, community mortgage sales manager, TD Bank
  • Chris Herbert, Joint Center for Housing Studies, Harvard University
  • Journalist moderator: Chris Arnold 

Further Reading

Proposals and Provocations: A Discussion with the Lincoln Institute

This session synthesizes the approaches the Lincoln Institute is currently taking to help address the housing affordability crisis in the United States. Lincoln Institute staff present key ideas of our work at the intersection of land and housing, and provoke a conversation by asking the audience: What will it take to cover these issues? How do we make them accessible to large and diverse audiences? What topics or angles might be missing in our work?

Speakers

  • Equity and Opportunity for Affordable Housing—Jessie Grogan and Semida Munteanu
  • The Federal Government’s Role: Underserved Mortgage Markets Coalition, I’m HOME (manufactured homes)—Arica Young
  • Capital Absorption as a Platform in Housing for Racial Equity and Health—Omar Carrillo Tinajero, director of partnerships and initiatives, Center for Community Investment
  • Greening Without Displacement—Amy Cotter, director, Climate Strategies
  • Moderator: David Luberoff, Joint Center for Housing Studies

Further Reading

Practicing the Craft

Traditional concluding roundtable of journalists talking about the challenges of covering housing; looking ahead to new frameworks and narratives, storytelling methods, and better use of data and graphics.

Facilitators

  • Paige Carlson-Heim, TD Charitable Foundation
  • Shelley Silva, TD Bank
  • Anthony Flint, Lincoln Institute

Details

Date
November 17, 2023 - November 18, 2023
Location
Lincoln Institute of Land Policy
113 Brattle Street
Cambridge, MA United States
Language
English

Keywords

Community Development, Housing, Land Banking, Land Trusts, Land Use, Land Use Planning, Land Value, Land Value Taxation, Land-Based Tax, Local Government, Mapping, Planning, Property Taxation, Reuse of Urban Land, Spatial Mismatch, Stakeholders, Sustainable Development, Transport Oriented Development, Urban Design, Urban Development, Urban Revitalization

Course

Máster en Políticas de Suelo y Desarrollo Urbano Sostenible

January 15, 2024 - March 19, 2025

Online

Offered in Spanish


El máster en Políticas de Suelo y Desarrollo Urbano Sostenible es un programa académico online en español que reúne de manera única los marcos legales y herramientas que sostienen la planificación urbana, junto con instrumentos fiscales, ambientales y de participación, desde una perspectiva internacional y comparada. El programa está dirigido especialmente a estudiantes de posgrado y otros graduados con interés en políticas urbanas desde una perspectiva jurídica, ambiental y de procesos de participación, así como a funcionarios públicos. Los participantes del máster recibirán el entrenamiento teórico y técnico para liderar la implementación de medidas que permitan la transformación sostenible de las ciudades.

El programa fue pensado de manera modular: los participantes pueden elegir realizar uno, dos o tres módulos, cada uno de los cuales otorga el diploma de experto universitario. Si llevan a cabo los tres módulos y finalizan con éxito el programa de fin de máster, obtienen el título de máster de formación permanente, otorgado por UNED.


Details

Date
January 15, 2024 - March 19, 2025
Registration Period
September 11, 2023 - November 30, 2023
Location
Online
Language
Spanish
Educational Credit Type
Lincoln Institute certificate

Keywords

Climate Mitigation, Development, Dispute Resolution, Environmental Management, Exclusionary Zoning, Favela, Henry George, Informal Land Markets, Infrastructure, Land Market Regulation, Land Speculation, Land Use, Land Use Planning, Land Value, Land Value Taxation, Land-Based Tax, Local Government, Mediation, Municipal Fiscal Health, Planning, Property Taxation, Public Finance, Public Policy, Regulatory Regimes, Resilience, Reuse of Urban Land, Urban Development, Urbanism, Value Capture

Comparing Property Tax Disparities in America’s Largest Cities

By Kristina McGeehan, August 16, 2023

 

Homeowners in Jacksonville, Florida, saw the largest property tax disparities in the nation last year due to assessment limits, according to a new study from the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy and the Minnesota Center for Fiscal Excellence. According to The 50-State Property Tax Comparison Study, the owner of a newly purchased, median-valued home in Jacksonville would face an effective tax rate 64 percent higher than the owner of an equally valued home in the city that was purchased in 2010. Jacksonville is not alone: it is one of 30 cities in the report affected by parcel-specific assessment limits. 

Produced annually, the comprehensive 50-state report provides the most meaningful data available to compare property taxes among cities by calculating the effective tax rate: the tax bill as a percentage of a property’s market value. Data are available for 74 large US cities and a rural municipality in each state, with information on four different property types (homestead, commercial, industrial, and apartment properties), and statistics on both net tax bills and effective tax rates.  

The study found that the average effective tax rate on a median-valued homestead was 1.32 percent in 2022 for the largest city in each state, with Bridgeport, Connecticut, Aurora, Illinois, Newark, and Detroit all having effective tax rates at least two times higher than the average. Conversely, seven cities have tax rates that are half of the study average or less: Honolulu, Boston, Denver, Salt Lake City, Boise, Charleston, South Carolina, and Cheyenne, Wyoming.  

The report also finds significant variations across cities in commercial property taxes, which include taxes on office buildings and similar properties. In 2022, the effective tax rate on a commercial property worth $1 million averaged 1.836 percent across the largest cities in each state. The highest rates were in Detroit and Chicago, where effective tax rates remain more than twice that average. Rates were less than half of the average in Cheyenne, Boise, Charlotte, Seattle, and Honolulu. 

The data highlighted in the report have important implications for cities because the property tax is a key part of the package of taxes and public services that affects cities’ competitiveness and quality of life. This analysis of how and why property taxes vary significantly across the United States allows for meaningful comparisons and more informed decision making by policymakers. 

The report is available for download on the Lincoln Institute website: https://www.lincolninst.edu/publications/other/50-state-property-tax-comparison-study-2022

 


 

Lead image: Miami, Florida. Credit: xbrchx via iStock/Getty Images Plus.

 

A bicyclist and trees on a city street
City Tech

Tree-Watering Apps for the Urban Forest

By Rob Walker, August 15, 2023

 

As cities grow and the struggle to address climate change and its effects continues to mount, the importance of the urban tree has also grown. Efforts to cultivate urban tree canopies abound and are popular with policymakers and the public alike. Trees provide much-needed shade, remove air pollution, absorb carbon, and even increase property values. But boosting the urban treescape has one element that often gets overlooked: It’s one thing to plant a lot of trees—but it’s something else to maintain them.

Technology has long played a role in efforts to track, map, and quantify the big-picture impacts of urban treescapes, from the environmental to the economic, a topic covered in this column in 2018. But new technologies have emerged and evolved since then, and some of the most intriguing are focused not just on high-level policy impacts but on the crucial issue of long-term maintenance. One specific example: adequate and timely watering, especially for younger trees, must be part of planning if the urban tree population is to endure.

Increasingly, cities are leveraging sophisticated tree-data tools to encourage and enable citizen engagement with urban tree maintenance, and in some cases even directly involve citizens in caring for the canopy.  

Consider a set of ongoing projects originating with CityLAB Berlin, a tech innovation nonprofit that applies data to urban problems. In recent years, Berlin, one of the more tree-rich cities in Europe, lost 20 percent of its trees thanks to high temperatures and a dearth of rain. That’s partly because monitoring and maintaining individual trees can be a complicated and heavy burden for municipal governments. So in 2020, CityLAB launched Gieß den Kiez (Water the Neighborhood), a digital platform that made government tree data available and accessible to the public. This made it possible for citizens to learn about local tree-watering needs—and to commit to helping out. “The application was developed based on the needs of our community,” said Yannick Müller, the organization’s head of strategic partnerships, via email.

The amount of data already available was a revelation: government projects had previously detailed and mapped hundreds of thousands of trees. CityLab combined this with other data, such as rainfall figures. The result is a new digital map with data on more than half a million trees, indicating watering levels and dates, cross-matched with watering needs based on age and species. Feedback and insights from a highly tree-engaged chunk of the citizenry helped shape the platform’s subsequent development. Some individuals had already essentially adopted, and independently started maintaining, particular urban trees. “They feel like it’s their own tree,” CityLab Berlin manager Julia Zimmermann told an interviewer. Citizens also had specific ideas about utilizing the city’s existing water pump system and making it more accessible. 

A map of water pump locations in Berlin
CityLab Berlin’s tree-watering app features searchable layers of data including the location of water pumps, color-coded by functionality (functional, defective, locked, and unknown). Credit: CityLab Berlin.

“A chat tool enables interaction between users, groups, and initiatives and allowed us to communicate and collect feedback,” Müller explained. Aside from resolving smaller bugs, this inspired new features, like one that displays the location and status of water pumps. It also helped support the designation of “caretakers” for specific trees, who commit to monitoring and watering on a regular basis. “This small added feature allows citizens to make use of their resources in a more targeted manner,” he said.

In 2021, the city of Leipzig adopted the tool, and a few more German municipalities have followed, according to Müller. User numbers are increasing continually, with more than 3,500 registered citizen-caretakers now watching over 7,500 adopted trees.

That said, the efforts of Gieß den Kiez remain an adjunct to public policy, not formally absorbed into official government urban tree maintenance plans. “However, the platform succeeds in raising awareness for climate adaptations in the light of future heat waves,” Müller maintains. In Berlin, for example, “it ignited a debate between different local district authorities as to what extent citizens should be involved in taking care of city trees and if that’s a good use for water.” (It is, Müller argues, considering the costs of planting new trees and the many proven environmental and health benefits of a robust urban treescape.)

One of the inspirations CityLAB Berlin has cited is the NYC Tree Map, a digital tool with roots reaching to 2016 that now maps nearly 1 million trees. “The NYC Tree Map is the most comprehensive and up-to-date living tree map in the world,” the NYC Department of Parks and Recreation declares. “Integrated directly with Parks’ forestry database, the map gives citizens the same real-time access to the urban forest that Parks foresters have on the ground.” This enables New Yorkers to “digitally interact” with the city’s tree population across the five boroughs—for instance, they can monitor a tree’s most recent inspection, with the date and inspection ID.

“Our NYC Tree Map allows casual tree lovers to easily identify trees, flag concerns, and report their care,” NYC Parks Director of Stewardship Nichole Henderson said via email. “Groups and individuals log their tree care activities into the map, like watering, litter removal, soil cultivation and mulching.” Moreover, several citizen groups monitor and use the map to coordinate more ambitious stewardship and maintenance efforts. As examples, Henderson mentions the Jackson Heights Beautification Group, an arts and environmental organization in Queens; Trees New York, a longstanding professional organization that trains “citizen pruners,” among other engagement activities; and the Gowanus Canal Conservancy, whose projects include “community science” efforts such as experiments in capturing and using rainwater. And the tree map is key to NYC Parks’ own broader Let’s Green NYC campaign, which posts “citywide street tree care activities with community partners and allows volunteers to see the visible impact, how they are directly contributing to caring for the urban forest,” Henderson said.

Similar initiatives are playing out in other major cities. The District Department of Transportation (DDOT) in Washington, DC, maintains a digital tree map that encourages citizen involvement (including reporting browning leaves or insect damage, as well as trees in need of watering). The tree map launched with a special focus on maintaining 8,200 trees planted in 2017. Elsewhere, the Adopt-A-Tree app in Athens, Greece, enables citizens to take responsibility for watering individual city trees during dry summer months. And entities like CityLAB Berlin continue to innovate: its new Quantified Trees (“QTrees”) project aims to develop a prediction system supported by artificial intelligence, drawing on databases and sensors to identify urban trees at risk from drought. A prototype is already in testing, and launch is planned for this year.

A map of tree locations in Washington, DC
Washington, DC’s tree-watering app maps the location of trees by neighborhood and species. Credit: DDOT Trees.

Zimmermann, of CityLab Berlin, concedes that it has been difficult to precisely demonstrate the impact of these efforts. “This is due to the nature of nature,” she said. Trees adapt slowly, so gauging the effects of watering programs could require years of monitoring growth, roots, leaves, and so on. But in the short term, the project’s data dashboard does illuminate watering patterns —and has shown that watering amounts have increased since the program started, almost certainly countering drought effects. “So the project leads at least to a better understanding and caretaking of urban green,” she continued. In some cases it has sparked local governments to support volunteers with material and guidelines for optimal watering practices.

“Trees are the new polar bears, the trending face of the environmental movement,” the historian and author Jill Lepore observed recently, in a survey of humans’ surprisingly long-lived appreciation for the arboreal. Now we have the science and technology to understand and quantify the value of trees beyond aesthetics. “If our ancestors found it wise and necessary to cut down fast forests, it is all the more needful that their descendants should plant trees,” Andrew Jackson Downing, a landscape architect, wrote in 1847. “Let every man, whose soul is not a desert, plant trees.” Fair enough. But we have the obligation—and the technology—to maintain them, too.

 


 

Rob Walker is a journalist covering design, technology, and other subjects. He is the author of The Art of Noticing. His newsletter is at robwalker.substack.com.

Lead image: Newly planted trees along a pop-up bike lane in Berlin, Germany. Credit: IGphotography via iStock/Getty Images Plus.

Graduate Student Fellowships

2023–2024 Programa de becas para el máster UNED-Instituto Lincoln

Submission Deadline: August 20, 2023 at 11:59 PM

El Instituto Lincoln de Políticas de Suelo y la Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED) ofrecen el máster en Políticas de Suelo y Desarrollo Urbano Sostenible, un programa académico online en español que reúne de manera única los marcos legales y herramientas que sostienen la planificación urbana, junto con instrumentos fiscales, ambientales y de participación, desde una perspectiva internacional y comparada. 

El máster está dirigido especialmente a estudiantes de posgrado y otros graduados con interés en políticas urbanas desde una perspectiva jurídica, ambiental y de procesos de participación, así como a funcionarios públicos. Los participantes del programa recibirán el entrenamiento teórico y técnico para liderar la implementación de medidas que permitan la transformación sostenible de las ciudades.  

Plazo de matrícula ordinario: 11 de septiembre al 30 de noviembre de 2023 

El inicio del máster es el 15 de enero de 2024. 

El Instituto Lincoln otorgará becas que cubrirán parcialmente el costo del máster de los postulantes seleccionados. 

Términos de las becas 

  • Los becarios deben haber obtenido un título de licenciatura de una institución académica o de estudios superiores. 
  • Los fondos de las becas no tienen valor en efectivo y solo cubrirán el 40% del costo total del programa. 
  • Los becarios deben pagar la primera cuota de la matrícula, que representa el 60% del costo total del máster. 
  • Los becarios deben mantener una buena posición académica o perderán el beneficio. 

El otorgamiento de la beca dependerá de la admisión formal del postulante al máster UNED-Instituto Lincoln. 

Si son seleccionados, los becarios recibirán asistencia virtual para realizar el proceso de admisión de la Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), el cual requiere una solicitud online y una copia del expediente académico o registro de calificaciones de licenciatura y/o posgrado. 

Aquellos postulantes que no obtengan la beca parcial del Instituto Lincoln podrán optar a las ayudas que ofrece la UNED, una vez que se hayan matriculado en el máster. 

Fecha límite para postular: 20 de agosto de 2023, 23:59 horas de Boston, MA, EE.UU. (UTC-5) 

Anuncio de resultados: 8 de septiembre de 2023 


Details

Submission Deadline
August 20, 2023 at 11:59 PM

Keywords

Climate Mitigation, Development, Dispute Resolution, Environmental Management, Exclusionary Zoning, Favela, Henry George, Informal Land Markets, Infrastructure, Land Market Regulation, Land Speculation, Land Use, Land Use Planning, Land Value, Land Value Taxation, Land-Based Tax, Local Government, Mediation, Municipal Fiscal Health, Planning, Property Taxation, Public Finance, Public Policy, Regulatory Regimes, Resilience, Reuse of Urban Land, Urban Development, Urbanism, Value Capture

A color-coded property map

Who Owns America: The Geospatial Mapping Technology That Could Help Cities Beat Predatory Investors at Their Own Game

By Jon Gorey, July 18, 2023

With sophisticated market research powered by prodigious profits, corporate real estate investors have long had the upper hand over vulnerable homeowners and the groups trying to protect them.

Investors can identify distressed homes in otherwise gentrifying neighborhoods, snap them up at a discount, and leave them empty for years waiting for nearby home values to rise. They can target longtime, elderly homeowners who may need to sell at a discount. And with plenty of cash on hand—and a new playbook that includes renting out houses rather than just flipping them—they can outbid individual homebuyers as they turn bedrooms into balance sheet items.

Now, a new data mapping tool from the Lincoln Institute’s Center for Geospatial Solutions (CGS) can help equip nonprofits, advocates, and local governments with similarly powerful technology to help identify and defend affordable housing stock threatened by real estate speculators and absentee landlords.

“It’s a very uneven playing field between private investors, who have the capital and are willing to invest the capital to get this market intelligence, and nonprofits that are struggling to keep the doors open, let alone invest in platforms like this,” says Jeff Allenby, CGS director of Geospatial Technology. “What you see is governments and nonprofits continuously trying to play catch up.”

Down-to-the-Parcel Data

In the wake of the Great Recession, corporations increasingly started purchasing and then renting out not just apartment buildings, but also single-family homes—especially in Sun Belt metro areas and postindustrial legacy cities, where rents remained stable despite lower property prices. Often, that’s had a cascade of negative impacts on low-income communities.

For one thing, it leaves more renters dealing with absentee corporate landlords, who can be quick to force an eviction and raise rents, but slow to fix a leaky roof or resolve code violations. It also reduces the supply of affordable housing stock available to would-be homebuyers, robbing local renters of opportunity.

In Baltimore’s Harlem Park neighborhood, for example, just 53 of the 464 homes sold since 2017—12 percent—were purchased by owner occupants. In 2022, one of every five homes sold in the neighborhood (19.2 percent) was purchased by an out-of-state business, and nearly half were bought by in-state corporations with multiple-property portfolios.

Rowhouses in Baltimore, Maryland
Rowhouses in Baltimore’s Harlem Park neighborhood slated for demolition in 2018 as part of an urban redevelopment effort by the city. The area has now become a target for institutional investors seeking to convert housing into rental properties. Credit: Baltimore Heritage via Flickr CC BY 2.0.

“You just saw this backfill of corporate ownership come into this neighborhood, and it’s going to take years to come back from that,” Allenby says. Where real estate investors once focused on flipping houses for a quick buck, they now see rental properties as a long-term moneymaker. “These houses are just gone, likely in perpetuity, from a homeownership perspective.”

This grim, granular data is courtesy of a CGS initiative called “Who Owns America?” Starting with Baltimore, CGS used a variety of public data sources to map every parcel in the city by its ownership characteristics, cross-checking postal information with deeds and other records to distinguish owner-occupied properties from those owned by private landlords and large or out-of-state businesses.

After coding city-owned residential parcels, Allenby explains, CGS filters for all properties where the owner’s mailing address doesn’t match the physical address—meaning it isn’t owner-occupied. After that, CGS can differentiate between private, off-site owners—local “mom-and-pop” landlords who may own one or two properties, for example—and more formal corporations, checking the names against a series of business-related keywords and acronyms, such as LLC, LLP, incorporated, and so on. Further filtering reveals whether a business is based in or out of state, and whether it owns multiple properties in the city.

The resulting color-coded maps make it clear where owner occupancy is more prevalent and where corporate landlords are most active. Empowered with this intuitive, down-to-the-parcel data, communities can identify housing stock likely to be targeted by speculators. Then they can take steps to defend (or even reclaim) affordable housing before it’s lost to corporate ownership.

The Right to Fight Back 

One policy cities can employ to thwart predatory investors is a right of first refusal rule, which gives tenants the option to purchase their home before it’s sold to a corporation. Knowing where such investors are active can help community leaders support the rollout of such a program with more targeted public outreach, says Senior Research Fellow Robert “R.J.” McGrail, director of the Lincoln Institute’s Accelerating Community Investment initiative.

“That’s the neighborhood you do flyers in, where you have some community organization go knock on doors to tell people, ‘Just so you know, if the out-of-state company that you write your rent check to ever sells your house, you have the first chance to buy it,’” McGrail says. “The ‘just-so-you-know’ conversation can be incredibly agency building and empowering for an individual, in a way that I think is another downstream potential benefit from this tool.”

Allenby is quick to point out that the formalization of property ownership isn’t in itself a bad thing. For example, if a local landlord dies and his children inherit his three rental properties and put them all into an LLC, that doesn’t fundamentally alter the local real estate landscape. And true investment—companies that buy vacant, dilapidated buildings, restore them to good condition, and get them back into the housing market—is almost always welcome.

“Investor owner doesn’t necessarily mean bad owner,” McGrail agrees. But by overlapping additional layers of parcel-level datasets, CGS can provide more context and reveal bad actors. For example, mapping where corporate ownership coincides with code violations—reports of broken deck railings, lack of heat, leaky toilets, and so on—“tells a dramatically more nuanced, useful story around what is happening and what to do about it,” he says.

In that case, McGrail notes, mapping might offer chronically understaffed inspectional departments a better way to prioritize their code enforcement. Similarly, layering vacancy data over out-of-state ownership maps can inform discussions around land use policies such as a split-rate tax.

“So many times, policy discussions happen in a vacuum of data,” Allenby says. “You’re talking about theoreticals, abstract numbers, abstract concepts, and you don’t really have a good handle on the scale of the issue that you’re talking about. And these tools allow you to frame that conversation very specifically.”

Beyond Baltimore 

CGS can provide a granular data map customized to an organization’s or community’s needs in just a couple of weeks, Allenby says. And it’s not just a tool for cities. CGS has also mapped the entire state of Massachusetts for a housing nonprofit, and is currently documenting timberland ownership across Alabama.

CGS also partnered with the International Land Conservation Network to combine the research of multiple conservation organizations in search of “Consensus Landscapes”—areas that meet not just one conservation priority, such as biodiversity, habitat connectivity, or carbon storage potential, but many such goals, all at once. The goal of this collaborative mapping framework, according to CGS, is to identify “places that everyone can agree are important, and should be the immediate focus of collective conservation efforts” as the United States works to protect 30 percent of its land by 2030.

Map of US conservation land priorities

The Center for Geospatial Solutions created a framework for mapping “consensus landscapes” by assessing and integrating the research of several conservation organizations. Credit: Center for Geospatial Solutions.

Jim Gray, senior fellow at the Lincoln Institute, is now working with CGS to study ownership trends among manufactured housing communities, which have also garnered the attention of real estate investors in recent years for their relatively low costs and reliable rents. Gray calls CGS’s work “invaluable” for its ability to transform a largely anecdotal challenge into real data.

“Knowing the extent of the problem, who is responsible, and where the problem is most acute will help inform and target which communities need to prioritize preserving this affordable housing stock, and how to go about that,” he says.

To learn more or to work with the Center for Geospatial Solutions, visit the CGS website or contact cgs@lincolninst.edu.


Jon Gorey is a staff writer at the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

Lead image: This Center for Geospatial Solutions image combines spatial analysis with land parcel data to illustrate different types of property ownership, part of a project intended to help communities better understand how institutional investors are affecting local land markets. Credit: Center for Geospatial Solutions.