Topic: Governo local

Tecnociudad

Nuevas herramientas para gestionar los objetivos climáticos locales
Por Rob Walker, Julho 31, 2022

 

En el esfuerzo cada vez más urgente de disminuir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y ralentizar el daño que produce el cambio climático, los gestores de políticas y los planificadores locales cumplen una función fundamental. La buena noticia es que hoy en día tienen acceso a más datos que nunca. Sin embargo, analizarlos, clasificarlos y comprenderlos puede ser un gran desafío.  

Un conjunto nuevo de herramientas tecnológicas ayuda a capturar datos relacionados con las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero municipales, los organiza de manera que sean sencillos de comprender y hace que sean accesibles para los dirigentes municipales.

En Minneapolis–St. Paul, el Consejo Metropolitano de Twin Cities trabaja en un nuevo esfuerzo ambicioso para apoyar las decisiones climáticas locales. Según la Agencia de Protección Medioambiental, las emisiones per cápita de Minnesota en 2016 estaban apenas por encima del promedio nacional de 16 toneladas métricas de dióxido de carbono por persona. Desglosar los detalles detrás de ese número puede ser complejo. Simplificarlo es uno de los objetivos principales del Consejo, que es un cuerpo regional que gestiona políticas, y actúa como agencia de planificación y proveedor de servicios, incluidos transporte y vivienda asequible para una región de siete condados, que cuenta con 181 gobiernos locales.

La herramienta de planificación de escenarios de gases de efecto invernadero del Consejo Metropolitano, que lleva tres años en desarrollo y estará disponible más adelante este año, surgió del trabajo que realizó el Consejo con el objetivo de fomentar la habitabilidad, la sostenibilidad y la vitalidad económica regionales, pero, básicamente, pueden utilizarla todas las municipalidades de los Estados Unidos.

Curiosamente, el proceso comenzó con la creación de un equipo de socios, incluidos varios académicos de renombre (de la Universidad de Princeton, la Universidad de Texas en Austin y la Universidad de Minnesota) que estudian distintos aspectos del cambio climático y organizaciones sin fines de lucro del sector privado, lo que “posibilitó el acceso a la ciencia y la innovación que solo puede brindar la academia, combinadas con la sabiduría práctica del gobierno”, dice Mauricio León, investigador sénior del Consejo Metropolitano.

Entre las tareas de León, se incluye el registro de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero de la región de Twin Cities, por lo que está familiarizado con las complejidades de medir las emisiones en el presente y buscar la forma de proyectar esos datos en diferentes escenarios en el futuro. El Consejo notó que este puede ser un desafío que consume tiempo y recursos para los gobiernos locales. Esto condujo a la idea de crear una aplicación web que toma como punto de partida bases de datos existentes y que puede ajustarse según las estrategias de políticas específicas.

León y una de las socias académicas del Consejo, Anu Ramaswami, profesora de ingeniería civil y medioambiental en Princeton e investigadora principal del proyecto, destacan que las asociaciones entre el sector público y el académico no son frecuentes. “Es algo casi único”, dice Ramaswami, que trabajó con distintas ciudades durante años, pero muy pocas veces en un proyecto que servirá a una gran cantidad de municipalidades y gobiernos locales.

En cuanto a los procesos, dice ella, los científicos y los gestores de políticas formularon las preguntas relevantes y, luego, crearon el modelo juntos. Los colaboradores identifican conjuntos de datos relacionados con las fuentes principales de emisiones. Por ejemplo, en el área de Twin Cities, alrededor del 67 por ciento de las emisiones directas provienen de “energía estacionaria”, como la electricidad y el gas natural que se usan en los hogares y edificios, mientras que el 32 por ciento proviene del transporte. El equipo también identificó las estrategias y políticas de reducción y compensación más prometedoras, como regulaciones, incentivos económicos, inversiones públicas y usos del suelo (parques y áreas verdes), entre otras. Con tres áreas o módulos centrales: la construcción de infraestructura energética, de transporte y verde, la aplicación está diseñada para mostrarles a los gestores de políticas los posibles resultados de varias estrategias de mitigación. El marco general se ajusta al objetivo de los gobiernos locales de neutralizar las emisiones para 2040, una meta a la que aspira el Consejo Metropolitano.

En la demostración conceptual preliminar de la herramienta durante la conferencia Consorcio para la Planificación de Escenarios (CSP, por su sigla en inglés) del Instituto Lincoln a principios de este año, León mostró cómo diferentes tipos de comunidades, desde ciudades hasta áreas rurales, tienen diferentes efectos y opciones de estrategias. Por ejemplo, una ciudad tiene muchas opciones de transporte que no están disponibles en una comunidad rural. Los gestores de políticas que usan la herramienta también pueden tener en cuenta otros factores claves, como las implicaciones en la igualdad de las estrategias de reducción de los gases de efecto invernadero que podrían tener un impacto en algunos segmentos de una comunidad más que en otros. “Esta herramienta se puede usar para crear una cartera de estrategias según los valores de cada uno”, explica León.

Con objetivos similares pero un enfoque distinto, el Consejo de Planificación del Área Metropolitana (MAPC, por su sigla en inglés) de Boston presentó una herramienta localizada de inventario de gases de efecto invernadero varios años atrás. La herramienta del MAPC se enfoca menos en los escenarios futuros y más en brindar datos y aproximaciones de referencia precisos y específicos de cada comunidad sobre los impactos de varias actividades e industrias. Guiada en parte por un marco de inventario de gases de efecto invernadero desarrollado por World Resources Institute, C40 Cities y CLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability, busca medir las emisiones directas e indirectas de una municipalidad.

Jillian Wilson-Martin, directora de Sostenibilidad en Natick, Massachusetts, dice que la herramienta del MAPC recopila los datos y estima los impactos sobre las emisiones de automóviles, la calefacción hogareña, el cuidado del jardín y otros factores que sería difícil obtener para un pueblo en forma individual. Esto ayudó a Natick a medir las fuentes principales de emisiones, que es el punto de partida para diseñar las estrategias de reducción. En conjunto con las compensaciones, el pueblo busca reducir sus emisiones netas de nueve toneladas métricas per cápita a cero para 2050. “Será más fácil para las comunidades pequeñas sin presupuesto para cuestiones de sostenibilidad acceder a esta información importante, lo que les permitirá ser más eficaces”, dice Wilson-Martin.

Si bien el MAPC brinda recursos de guía y capacitación a las 101 ciudades y pueblos que sirve en el este de Massachusetts, es tarea del dirigente de cada municipalidad decidir cómo miden el inventario de emisiones locales y cómo pueden usar ese dato para la planificación. Esto puede limitar los usos de la predicción específica, pero tiene otra ventaja, dice Tim Reardon, director de Servicios de Datos del MAPC. “Lo valioso de tener una herramienta adaptada de manera local es que permite obtener la credibilidad y la aceptación de las partes interesadas a nivel local”, explicó Reardon en la conferencia CSP. También dijo que, si bien los datos generales que no aplican a una comunidad en particular pueden generar cierto desinterés, los datos locales bajan la crisis climática mundial a la realidad y facilitan la conversación sobre lo que debe suceder a nivel local para garantizar un futuro resiliente.

A menudo, en los debates sobre la planificación de escenarios de gases de efecto invernadero, “hay cierta sensación de que esto es demasiado complejo incluso para pensar en ello”, concuerda León. La herramienta web simple del Consejo tiene como objetivo contradecir ese argumento. Está diseñada para mostrar en forma gráfica y sencilla los diferentes niveles de emisiones que se obtendrían si se adoptaran diversas tácticas específicas, y compararlos con el escenario futuro si se mantiene la situación actual.

Un beneficio de contar con una herramienta tan asequible, agrega Ramaswami, es que fomenta una participación más amplia y “permite que surjan más oportunidades de creatividad”. De hecho, dice que el proyecto de Twin Cities tuvo un efecto similar en sus socios académicos: “Se necesitan un tipo de mentalidad científica y un grupo de investigación diferentes” para trabajar directamente con municipalidades y responder a opciones de políticas reales. Cuando la herramienta esté disponible, también se publicará la investigación académica relacionada que realizaron Ramaswami y el resto de los socios académicos del grupo.

León sabe que la aplicación tendrá sus limitaciones y que, en última instancia, las políticas internacionales y federales de mayor alcance tendrán un mayor impacto total que cualquier iniciativa local, pero cualquier cosa que impulse la participación es importante, agrega. La aplicación web está diseñada para alentar a las municipalidades de todos los tamaños a interactuar con los cálculos y los números que recopiló el equipo del proyecto, lo que significa que no tendrán que cargar sus propios datos. “Es muy fácil”, dice León, “y no hay excusa válida para que no la usen”.

 


 

Rob Walker es periodista; escribe sobre diseño, tecnología y otros temas. Es el autor de The Art of Noticing. Publica un boletín en robwalker.substack.com

Fotografía: En Minneapolis, el metro ligero es una opción de transporte neutro en carbono. Las agencias de planificación regional en Twin Cities y el área metropolitana de Boston ayudan a los dirigentes municipales a acceder a datos sobre las emisiones de carbono y comprenderlos. Crédito: Wiskerke vía Alamy Stock Photo.

Image: Children departing a yellow school bus.

How State Aid and Local Property Taxes Can Together Fund Quality Education for All Students

By Allison Ehrich Bernstein, Novembro 15, 2022

 

Local property taxes and state aid each have flaws, but a thoughtful combination of these two revenue sources is the most effective recipe for funding a high-quality K–12 education for  all students, according to a new Policy Focus Report published by the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. 
 
In Rethinking the Property Tax–School Funding Dilemma, authors Daphne A. Kenyon, Bethany Paquin, and Andrew Reschovsky explain how local property taxes foster civic engagement and provide stable funding, while state aid is critical in reducing disparities among school districts caused by differing levels of property wealth and differences in the money needed to provide high-quality education. 
 
The report explains the advantages of the property tax compared to other local taxes and demonstrates how states can adopt policies to address criticism of the property tax. A well- designed system of state aid can offset differences in per-pupil property values and in the costs of providing quality education. State-funded property tax credits can reduce economic hardships for taxpayers facing high property tax burdens, especially those with low incomes. And unjustified differences in property tax bills among owners of similar properties can be addressed through more frequent and accurate assessments. The authors explain why the majority of states still fail to provide all students an adequate education and recommend policies to strengthen both funding sources with the specific goal of improving student outcomes. 

Five state-level case studies illustrate the practical nuances of state education finance and property tax policies and offer important lessons for policy makers. California’s Proposition 13 limited property taxation and accelerated a shift toward state funding at the expense of local control and student academic performance. A more modest property tax limit in Massachusetts proved more flexible and, combined with targeted state aid and robust accountability standards, has not impeded strong academic results. 

South Carolina’s implementation of a local-for-state tax swap in 2007, which fully exempted homeowners from paying local school property taxes and increased reliance on the sales tax to fund education, demonstrated how unreliable sales taxes can be in an economic downturn. Despite a long history of school funding litigation, Texas still relies heavily on property taxes to fund its schools. Failure to continually adjust its state funding formula for rising costs and property values has led to higher property tax burdens on homeowners. Last, in Wisconsin, the state’s property tax revenue limit restricts school districts’ ability to increase spending, and the state equalization aid formula does not account for differences in school districts’ needs and costs. 

“As a former state education official, I would have loved to have had a report like this to help me get up to speed on the critical issues around school finance policy,” said Carrie Conaway, former chief strategy and research officer at the Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education and senior lecturer at the Harvard University Graduate School of Education. “The report provides a very clear explanation of the role played by the property tax in funding public education and describes the complex issues involved in designing effective state aid systems. Anyone involved in or interested in school funding policy will benefit from reading this report.”  

“A perennial target in state education finance legislation, the property tax remains a much-discussed and asked-about topic in my work with state legislatures,” National Conference of State Legislatures Senior Fellow Daniel G. Thatcher agreed. “This report will guide policy conversations about how to improve the sustainability, stability, and fairness of property tax systems, and also in education finance systems writ large.”  

Rethinking the Property Tax–School Funding Dilemma offers specific reforms that state governments—as well as localities—can make to balance revenue needs, funding realities, and other considerations. Notably, states must resist calls to stop using local property taxes to fund schools while also improving the equity and efficiency of their property tax systems.  

The authors also recommend that states maintain sufficient “rainy day funds” to draw upon when state tax revenues decline and that they target more local aid toward schools that require additional support to provide their students with an adequate education. Finally, the federal government also has a role to play in supplementing funding in low-spending states according to need, as well as in helping remedy learning losses from the COVID-19 pandemic. 

“Understanding the relationship between local property taxes and state school aid is critical for understanding how public schools are funded,” said Lawrence O. Picus, professor of education finance and policy at the University of Southern California Rossier School of Education. “This Policy Focus Report provides concise guidance about the use of property taxes and the importance of state funds to equalize disparities in property tax revenues for schools. It is a must-read for anyone interested in, or part of, the school finance policy process, and an excellent introduction for those who want to dig deeper into these relationships.”  

While specific reforms will necessarily vary across different states and localities, the authors stress that targeting state education funding is essential in closing equity gaps and overcoming the persistent effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and their disproportionate impact on students of color, English-language learners, and disabled students.  

Equally important is a well-functioning property tax system that avoids overly burdensome restrictions while offering “circuit breakers” and other forms of targeted relief to homeowners in need. Ultimately, the authors offer readers the tools for “overcoming the shortcomings of both funding sources, enabling state school funding systems to give all students an adequate, quality education equitably and efficiently.” 

The report is available for download on the Lincoln Institute’s website: https://www.lincolninst.edu/publications/policy-focus-reports/rethinking…

 


 

Allison Ehrich Bernstein is principal at Allative Communications.

Image by kali9 via Getty Images. 

Freetown

Mayor’s Desk: Cultivating Climate Resilience in Sierra Leone

By Anthony Flint, Novembro 10, 2022

Mayor Yvonne Denise Aki-Sawyerr took office in Freetown, Sierra Leone, in May 2018, after serving as head of the Freetown City Council. A finance professional with over 25 years of experience in the public and private sectors, she had previously been involved with the campaign against blood diamonds and was instrumental in the response to the Ebola crisis in 2014. She has delivered two TED talks, about turning dissatisfaction into action and the capital city’s initiative to plant a million trees, and was named to the Time 100 Next list of emerging leaders and the BBC’s 100 Women list.

A leader in the C40 Cities global network, Aki-Sawyerr launched the Transform Freetown planning initiative and appointed Africa’s first chief heat officer, to confront the impacts of climate change. She holds degrees from the London School of Economics and Freetown’s Fourah Bay College, and is married with two children. She spoke with Senior Fellow Anthony Flint in the fall. Their conversation has been edited for length and clarity.

Anthony Flint: Could you talk about the Transform Freetown initiative as a planning and action framework, and your assessment of its progress?

Yvonne Aki-Sawyerr: I ran for office in 2018, motivated by concerns around the environment and sanitation. My campaign message, “for community, for progress, for Freetown,” translated into Transform Freetown. It focuses on four categories: resilience, human development, healthy city, and urban mobility.

Resilience includes environmental management; it also includes urban planning, because you cannot separate the two, and revenue organization, because sustainability will only come from the city’s ability to sustain and generate revenue itself. The healthy city cluster includes sanitation, which goes very closely with environmental management for Freetown and many African cities. If you think about climate change, our teeny-weeny contribution to climate change, a lot of it actually comes from methane, from open dumping, but it also has huge health implications. So in the healthy city category was sanitation, health, and water.

What we did was, having come into office with those high-level areas of concern, we had 322 focus groups with about 15,000 residents to get their views on affordability, accessibility, and availability of services across those sectors. We invited the public sector, private sector, and the international community via development partners and NGOs to participate in roundtable discussions.

Out of that process came 19 specific, measurable targets that we’re working toward under Transform Freetown. We report against them every year back to the city, back to our residents. It really has been a way of introducing greater accountability, of holding our own feet to the fire, and it’s very much community owned and community driven.

AF: Among all the climate threats the city faces, you appointed a chief heat officer. Why was a chief heat officer necessary and what have been the results thus far?

YA: I’m asked often, how do you get ordinary people interested in climate change? In our case it’s not hard, because the consequences of climate change are intensely felt in our parts of the world. We suffer greatly from flooding and landslides, hence my concern with the environment and being able to mitigate those impacts.

The [Atlantic Council’s Adrienne Arsht-Rockefeller Foundation Resilience Center] really got us thinking about the fact that there are more deaths from extreme heat than there are from the more visible and tangible disasters like the floods and landslides. Extreme heat, particularly where water is in short supply, is a major impact of the warming climate.

In our case, the vulnerable are mainly those living in informal settlements. That’s 35 percent of our city’s population, and in those informal settlements, the housing structures are typically made from corrugated iron. With increased temperatures, you’re effectively living in an oven. The other aspect of that is we have an informal economy. Around 60 percent of women in our city are involved in trading. Most of our markets are outdoors, so you’re sitting in the sun all day long. Doing that under the intense heat means that [other] negative health consequences are exacerbated.

With the chief heat officer, we now are going to be able to embark on some research, collecting data to identify the heat islands; anecdotally, we have a sense of where those are, mainly in the informal settlements, but potentially also in the middle of the city. We need to be able to make arguments to challenge what’s going on with the lack of building permits, and land use planning being devolved to the city, and the massive deforestation that continues unabated.

The chief heat officer has worked with market women and gotten funding from Arsht-Rock to install market shade covers in three of our open markets. It’s great to see the enthusiasm of the women and them saying, “Are we going to get this all the way along the market? We can see where it’s starting, where it stops, but we need it too.”

Newly installed shades in the markets of Freetown, Sierra Leone, help residents cope with extreme heat. Credit: Courtesy photo.

AF: What are your hopes for other climate mitigation projects, including the initiative to plant a million trees? How did that come about, and how is it going?

YA: Well, it came about because there’s an appreciation that we were losing our vegetation and that [worsens] the effect of extreme weather events, [as when heavy rains led to massive mudslides in 2017]. The lack of forestation is a major part of that. The goal is to increase vegetation cover by 50 percent.

Planting the million trees is the long-term plan, but in the meantime, you still have the runoff from the mountains filling the drains with silt. Our annual flood mitigation work identifies the worst of these areas and clears the silt so that when the rains come, the water can still flow. On a smaller scale, we’ve also been able to build something like 2,000 meters of drainage in smaller communities. Beyond that, we’ve invested heavily in disaster management training and capacity building.

The thing about climate change impacts is they are really pervasive. If people are experiencing crop failure outside of Freetown, it will eventually drive a rural-urban migration because they’re unable to sustain their livelihoods and they’re going to come to the city looking for some means of making a living.

That pressure of population growth in the city is something else that we have to deal with—whether it’s introducing the cable car to improve transportation and reduce greenhouse gas emissions [or encouraging] the government to devolve land use planning and building permit functions so that we can actually introduce land management actions, which save life and save property but also protect the environment and prevent people from building properties in waterways and streams and canals, which currently happens. All of this is made worse by not using legislation and urban management tools such as land use planning and building permitting in a constructive manner.

AF: Could you describe Freetown’s property tax reform efforts, and the outcomes you’ve seen, in the overall context of municipal fiscal health?

YA: We worked on this property tax reform moving from 37,000 properties in the database of a city that’s a capital city with at least 1.2 to 1.5 million people—37,000 properties. When I came in, it was clear that that was not reflective of reality, but also the manual system that they operated, literally with a ledger book, was not really fit for purpose in the 21st century.

One of our 19 targets is to increase property tax income fivefold. To go about doing that, we secured funding and partnerships to digitize. We changed from an area-based system to a point-based system. We worked on that by taking a satellite image of the entire city and building an algorithm to give weightings to features [like roofs, windows, and location], then comparing that against a database of 3,000 properties whose values were determined by real charter surveyors. We got the old-type assessment done. We were able to identify outliers and refine the model and eventually build a model which we now use as our property base.

Through that process, we moved from 37,000 properties to over 120,000 properties. That meant we were able to meet our target of increasing our property tax revenue from [$425,000 to over $2 million]. That in itself is the pathway to sustainability and being able to invest.

A big part of fiscal health is that sustainability, but . . . unfortunately, the Ministry of Local Government [halted collections while developing national tax reform guidelines]. We were without revenue for about a year. We have started re-collecting, but as you can imagine, compliance levels will take a long time to recover.

AF: Where do you find inspiration in the face of so many challenges?

YA: From the fact that we have been able to make a difference in the lives of Freetonians. We’ve been able to test and to see how much can be achieved if one is given the space to do so. We know that so much is possible and so we keep going.


Anthony Flint is a senior fellow at the Lincoln Institute, host of the Land Matters podcast, and a contributing editor to Land Lines.

Lead image: Mayor Yvonne Aki-Sawyerr. Credit: Courtesy photo.

Oportunidades de bolsas para estudantes graduados

2023 C. Lowell Harriss Dissertation Fellowship Program

Submission Deadline: March 3, 2023 at 6:00 PM

The Lincoln Institute's C. Lowell Harriss Dissertation Fellowship Program assists PhD students whose research complements the Institute's interest in property valuation and taxation. The program provides an important link between the Institute's educational mission and its research objectives by supporting scholars early in their careers. 

The application deadline is 6:00 p.m. EST on March 3, 2023. 

For information on present and previous fellowship recipients and projects, please visit C. Lowell Harriss Dissertation Fellows, Current and Past


Details

Submission Deadline
March 3, 2023 at 6:00 PM


Downloads

Course

Foundations of Local Government Finance in the United States

Offered in inglês


This online self-paced course provides an overview of how local governments in the US raise and spend money. It illuminates the often-misunderstood system by which communities pay for public services and infrastructure—from schools to clean water to sidewalks—that are foundational to a high quality of life.

This course is intended for urban planners and other local government staff, real estate professionals, employees of nonprofit organizations, and anyone interested in how local governments pay for public goods. In nine modules led by top experts, the course explains the structure of different levels of government in the US, delves into the revenue sources and financial instruments available to local governments, and explores other topics related to the fiscal health of communities and regions.

 

Modules

Module 1: Why Do We Have Local Governments?

Instructor: Jenna DeAngelo Martin

Module 2: Understanding Local Government Budgets

Instructor: John Anderson

Module 3: Overview of Local Revenues

Instructor: Adam Langley

Module 4: The Property Tax

Instructor: Bethany Paquin

Module 5: Economic Development

Instructor: Daphne Kenyon

Module 6: Land Value Capture

Instructor: Luis Quintanilla

Module 7: Debt

Instructor: Jenna DeAngelo Martin

Module 8: Public-Private Partnerships

Instructor: Tom Morsch

Module 9: Other Considerations, Wrap Up, and Final Assessment

Instructor: Jenna DeAngelo Martin

 

Time Commitment

Everyone learns at their own pace. However, we can provide some guidance as to how long it will take to complete this course. In total, you will need to watch a little over four hours of videos. In addition, you will need to complete a short assessment at the end of each module and a final assessment at the end of the course. We estimate it will take at least five hours to complete this course. This is a self-paced course, so you can leave the course and pick up where you left off whenever you would like, and take as long as you need to complete it.

 

Certificate

Upon completion of all aspects of this course (including the pre-course survey, the final assessment, and the course evaluation survey), students will be issued a certificate of completion.

For planners maintaining their AICP credentials, this course provides five (5) Certification Maintenance (CM) credits from the American Planning Association (APA). You are responsible for logging your own CM credits.


Details

Language
inglês
Registration Fee
Free
Educational Credit Type
Lincoln Institute certificate

Keywords

Desenvolvimento Econômico, Infraestrutura, Governo Local, Saúde Fiscal Municipal, Planejamento, Tributação Imobiliária, Finanças Públicas, Políticas Públicas, Financiamento por Tributos Adicionais, Tributação, Recuperação de Mais-Valias

Desplazados

A medida que la crisis climática obliga a los habitantes de los EE.UU. a reubicarse, surge una nueva conversación
Por Alexandra Tempus, Julho 14, 2022

 

A pesar de que la espera, Frances Acuña filtra mi llamada. “Me llaman muchas personas que quieren comprar mi casa”, explica cuando me devuelve la llamada. “A veces recibo cinco cartas por correo y hasta 10 llamadas”.  

El barrio Dove Springs en el sureste de Austin, Texas, donde Acuña lleva 25 años viviendo, se encuentra a 15 minutos del centro y en el límite de la última ola de aburguesamiento. Hace una década, dice, aquellos que no eran locales no querían involucrarse con la comunidad trabajadora de las casas de campo modestas: “Para ellos era una especie de gueto”.

En 2013, el arroyo Onion Creek desbordó, tras recibir casi 255 milímetros de lluvia en un solo día, e inundó las calles. Murieron cinco habitantes y se inundaron más de 500 viviendas. Dos años más tarde, se produjo otra inundación histórica. La ciudad de Austin, que ya había comenzado a comprar y demoler las viviendas de esta área baja con la ayuda de préstamos federales, aceleró sus esfuerzos y logró adquirir y demoler más de 800 casas.

Las propiedades adquiridas mediante programas de compra de viviendas financiados por la Agencia Federal para el Manejo de Emergencias (FEMA, por su sigla en inglés) deben permanecer “abiertas a perpetuidad”, para permitir que se inunden de manera segura en el futuro. En este caso, la ciudad transformó cientos de hectáreas de suelo abandonadas cerca de Dove Springs en un parque. Ahora, la zona cuenta con instalaciones atractivas: un área de recreación, un parque para perros, senderos y áreas con sombra para relajarse. Estas mejoras urbanas, impulsadas explícitamente por políticas de adaptación climáticas, hicieron que el área sea incluso más atractiva para los nuevos habitantes recién llegados (con un promedio de 180 recién llegados por día en 2020, Austin se encuentra entre las áreas metropolitanas de crecimiento más rápido del país).

Sin embargo, para Acuña el parque es un recordatorio doloroso de los vecinos que sufrieron pérdidas y de que incluso los esfuerzos bienintencionados de poner a salvo a las personas pueden causar daño. “Para mí no es un lugar alegre”, dice Acuña. “Quizás [los recién llegados] no lo saben porque solo ven un espacio verde”.

A medida que aumenta la magnitud de las inundaciones, los incendios, los huracanes y otras catástrofes naturales por el cambio climático, los expertos del Consejo para la Defensa de Recursos Naturales (NRDC, por su sigla en inglés) de la Oficina de Responsabilidad Gubernamental de los EE.UU. recomiendan enfáticamente que las municipalidades retiren las viviendas y la infraestructura de las zonas propensas a riesgos, a fin de ahorrar dinero y salvar vidas. Pero ¿cómo puede producirse la reubicación por el clima de forma que evite el aburguesamiento y el desplazamiento, honre la cultura y la historia de los habitantes originales, fomente el cambio de la planificación reactiva a la proactiva y garantice que aquellos que deben reubicarse puedan encontrar lugares seguros y asequibles para vivir?

Estas son las preguntas que Acuña y una creciente red de dirigentes, planificadores, investigadores, funcionarios de agencias y gestores de políticas locales buscan responder como parte de Climigration Network.

Fundada en 2016 por el Consensus Building Institute, Climigration Network busca posicionarse como la fuente central de información y apoyo para las comunidades de los EE.UU. que deben reubicarse o que lo están considerando debido a los riesgos climáticos. Más del 40 por ciento de los habitantes de los EE.UU., alrededor de 132 millones de personas, viven en un condado que padeció alguna condición climática extrema en 2021 (Kaplan y Tran, 2022). El crecimiento poblacional en las áreas propensas a incendios forestales se duplicó entre 1990 y 2010, y continúa creciendo. La FEMA dice que hay 13 millones de estadounidenses viviendo en zonas inundables para un período de retorno de 100 años (uno por ciento de probabilidad anual), mientras que al menos un estudio destacado indica que son 41 millones (Wing et al., 2018). 

Las Naciones Unidas, el Banco Mundial y los académicos admiten que la mayoría de las migraciones climáticas se producen dentro de los límites nacionales, no hacia afuera. Pero en los Estados Unidos, la conversación sobre los sistemas necesarios para apoyar la migración climática fluye lentamente, incluso a pesar de que el cambio climático redobla su impacto en las riberas, las costas y otras regiones vulnerables. Un informe publicado el año pasado por la Casa Blanca sobre el tema marcó, según su propio cálculo, “la primera vez que el gobierno de los EE.UU. informa oficialmente la relación entre el cambio climático y la migración” (Casa Blanca 2021). 

Map of the 20 billion-dollar weather and climate disasters that impacted the United States in 2021. Credit: NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI).

En la actualidad, la mayoría de las reubicaciones relacionadas con el clima en los Estados Unidos se producen del mismo modo que sucedió en Dove Springs. Luego de una catástrofe natural, se envía dinero federal para la recuperación, por lo general mediante la FEMA o el Departamento de Vivienda y Desarrollo Urbano de los Estados Unidos, a los estados y las municipalidades para comprar las viviendas dañadas. Los propietarios particulares le venden sus viviendas al gobierno al valor del mercado previo a la catástrofe natural y se mudan a otro sitio. Según el NRDC, la FEMA financió más de 40.000 compras en 49 estados desde la década de 1980.

Sin embargo, a pesar de los programas federales de compra establecidos hace décadas, no existe un conjunto de buenas prácticas o estándares oficiales. El tiempo promedio de compra es de cinco años. Mientras tanto, los costos de los arreglos y las viviendas temporales se acumulan. La orientación para los propietarios sobre cómo transitar el proceso de compra es confusa o casi inexistente, y las políticas y el financiamiento de la reubicación se centran en los casos particulares, no en los barrios o las comunidades que quieren permanecer juntas.  

A nivel local, las comunidades que evalúan la reubicación se enfrentan a varias barreras sociales y financieras. Las municipalidades no suelen fomentar la reubicación porque no quieren perder a la población ni la renta de los impuestos. Los habitantes, en especial aquellos que se enfrentan a una crisis, no suelen tener la capacidad y los recursos para encontrar un nuevo lugar seguro donde vivir, incluso aunque estén dispuestos a trasladarse.

A pesar de esos obstáculos, algunos pueblos pequeños diseñaron barrios nuevos e incluso pueblos nuevos a los que trasladarse. En la década de 1970, un par de pueblos del centro de los EE.UU. (Niobrara, Nebraska y Soldiers Grove, Wisonsin) iniciaron algunos de los primeros proyectos de reubicación de comunidades. En la década de 1990, Pattonsburg, Missouri y Valmeyer, Illinois, entre otros, se reubicaron a tierras más altas tras la Gran Inundación de 1993 sobre el río Misisipi. A medida que aumenta el impacto climático, los pueblos y los barrios, desde Carolina del Norte y del Sur hasta Alaska, desarrollan planes similares. Sin embargo, es poco frecuente que se compartan los conocimientos o que haya una coordinación que podría ayudar a las comunidades a ajustar o incluso rediseñar el proceso.

Climigration Network, en conjunto con el Instituto Lincoln y otros, conecta las comunidades afectadas por el clima entre sí y con profesionales que pueden ayudar. Una de las preocupaciones iniciales era cómo presentar el concepto de “retirada controlada” como opción de adaptación para las comunidades que se enfrentan a un riesgo importante. El término, pensado para referirse a movimientos estratégicos hacia fuera de las áreas propensas a catástrofes naturales, se volvió común en los debates sobre políticas que se produjeron tras huracanes y grandes inundaciones en la década pasada. ¿La ciudad de Nueva York debería analizar una retirada controlada de su costa, en lugar de invertir en paredes costosas y posiblemente ineficaces, tras el huracán Sandy? ¿Debería hacerlo Houston tras el huracán Harvey? Los gestores de políticas, los planificadores y los investigadores debatieron estas preguntas en profundidad, muchas veces sin la participación de las comunidades afectadas, que consideraron el término y el concepto alienantes.

Cuando Climigration Network comenzó su trabajo, en seguida quedó en evidencia que se necesitaba un tipo diferente de conversación, dice la directora Kristin Marcell. Con financiamiento de la fundación Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, la red creó un equipo creativo liderado por personas de color y originarios de pueblos indígenas; los miembros del equipo provienen de comunidades afectadas por la crisis climática. El equipo, dirigido por Scott Shigeoka y Mychal Estrada, propuso rediseñar el debate sobre el problema actual que enfrentan los pueblos y los barrios que deberían reubicarse.

Los dirigentes del proyecto invitaron a más de 40 dirigentes de primera línea para que compartan sus experiencias tras una catástrofe natural, y la red los compensó por ese trabajo. El resultado fue un conjunto de datos sobre el mundo real que ahora están recopilados en una guía sobre la reubicación climática.

Una conclusión clara es que, cuando se trata de la “retirada controlada”, hay más cuestiones involucradas que solo la mala publicidad. Los dirigentes de las comunidades les explicaron a los investigadores que la palabra “controlada” resuena a paternalismo y programas gubernamentales jerárquicos. En las comunidades de color, trae recuerdos no muy lejanos del desplazamiento forzoso: el comercio de esclavos, el Sendero de las Lágrimas, los campos de reclusión y prácticas discriminatorias. El concepto de “retirada” dejó muchas preguntas sin responder.

“Crea una idea negativa de que las personas están huyendo de algo, en lugar de trabajar para lograr un objetivo”, escribieron los investigadores en la guía. “La palabra comunica qué se debería hacer, pero no adónde ir o cómo hacerlo” (Climigration Network 2021). 

Ahora, Climigration Network aprovecha esa información en conversaciones con tres organizaciones comunitarias en el medio oeste, la costa del golfo de los EE.UU. y el Caribe que apoyan a los habitantes locales que analizan estrategias de adaptación, incluida la reubicación. Entre los socios que participan en estas conversaciones, se encuentran Anthropocene Alliance, una coalición de sobrevivientes de inundaciones y otras catástrofe naturales en los Estados Unidos, y Buy-In Community Planning, una organización sin fines de lucro que busca mejorar los procesos de compra de viviendas.

Los miembros de Climigration Network comenzaron a usar alternativas más inspiradoras a “retirada controlada”, incluidas “reubicación organizada por la comunidad” y “reubicación con apoyo”. Pero el objetivo no es encontrar un solo término nuevo o crear un plan estructurado que pueda adoptarse de forma universal. Como dice Marcell, puede ser “muy ofensivo” cuando personas externas se acercan a las comunidades con solo modelos y plantillas.

“No podemos ganarnos la confianza de una comunidad si no se empieza con una conversación abierta sobre cómo abordar el problema, porque [cada] contexto es único”, dice.

En cambio, la red busca cocrear con cada una de las organizaciones un método para identificar las necesidades y los objetivos específicos de cada lugar. Eso implica identificar y entrevistar a personas influyentes de la comunidad y, con la ayuda de Buy-In Community Planning, desarrollar preguntas para una encuesta puerta a puerta.

“Hay todavía mucho trabajo por hacer en la interacción y orientación individual con las personas que están en las peores situaciones del cambio climático”, dice Osamu Kumasaka de Buy-In Community Planning. Llegó a esta conclusión mientras trabajaba como mediador en el Consensus Building Institute en Piermont, Nueva York, en 2017. El pueblo ubicado sobre el río Hudson sufría el comienzo de lo que sería una inundación crónica: agua en los sótanos, patios traseros inundados, habitantes chapoteando en las calles de camino al trabajo. Piermont, un pueblo pequeño y rico con su propio comité de resiliencia ante inundaciones y acceso a datos de primer nivel sobre el riesgo de inundaciones, se vio invadido por la incertidumbre en cuanto a cómo proseguir.

“Nos costó definir cómo incluir todo el trabajo que debía hacerse con estos propietarios en reuniones públicas”, dice Kumasaka. Cada hogar tenía factores muy específicos que influenciaban la decisión de quedarse o irse: personas mayores con necesidades especiales, hijos a punto de terminar la secundaria, planes de jubilarse. Según Kumasaka, organizar encuestas, pequeños debates y evaluaciones de riesgos personalizadas fue un enfoque más eficaz para ayudar a la comunidad a entender mejor dónde estaba parada y cuáles eran sus objetivos.

En resumen, se espera que este tipo de trabajo ayude a determinar una estrategia comunitaria, desde identificar la tolerancia a riesgos hasta enviar una solicitud a un programa de compra. La red y sus socios esperan que este enfoque altamente personalizable ayude a las comunidades a superar las dificultades que otros ignoran.

Tal como hizo Climigration Network cuando recopiló información de los dirigentes de primera línea para su guía, Buy-In Community Planning compensa a los miembros de las tres organizaciones comunitarias por su tiempo y la información que brindan. Un elemento clave del proceso es ayudar a invertir una dinámica en la que las personas externas realizan una investigación general y brindan experiencia a una de colaboración real en la que se les paga a los habitantes locales y a los profesionales para lograr un objetivo en común.

La reubicación es un tema espinoso en las comunidades de ingresos bajos y mayoritariamente de color porque, históricamente, los habitantes no recibieron la misma protección contra las inundaciones que aquellos en áreas de mayores ingresos. En debates sobre la compra de viviendas, como indica Kumasaka, suele haber una “sensación de que no es justo pasar directamente a la reubicación”.

Es un argumento válido y representa un círculo vicioso. En 2020, el Consejo Asesor Nacional (NAC, por su sigla en inglés) de la FEMA respaldó los resultados de una investigación en la que se indicaba que “cuanto más dinero de la Agencia Federal para el Manejo de Emergencias recibe un condado, más aumenta la riqueza de los blancos y más disminuye la de las personas de color; lo demás se mantiene igual”. Dado que el financiamiento suele destinarse a las comunidades más grandes y mejor posicionadas para igualar y aceptar esos recursos, “las comunidades con menos recursos e ingresos no pueden acceder al financiamiento adecuado que les permitiría prepararse para una catástrofe natural, lo que desemboca en una respuesta y recuperación insuficientes, y pocas oportunidades de migrar. Durante todo el ciclo de catástrofes naturales, las comunidades que no recibieron apoyo no cuentan con recursos suficientes, por lo que sufren innecesaria e injustamente” (NAC de la FEMA, 2020).

El concepto de reubicación voluntaria está plagado de tensión, y los tres socios comunitarios de Climigration Network prefirieron que no se los entreviste ni identifique en este artículo. Hay mucho en juego a medida que la crisis internacional se hace presente a nivel local, y la participación dedicada puede hacer la diferencia entre mantener unida a una comunidad o no.

Con su enfoque en la opinión de la comunidad, un proyecto como este podría marcar un cambio radical en cómo los Estados Unidos abordan la migración climática, dice Harriet Festing, directora ejecutiva de Anthropocene Alliance. Festing, que ayudó a Climigration Network aestablecer relaciones con las tres organizaciones comunitarias que forman parte de la red de Anthropocene Alliance, destaca el tema que surge de este trabajo: “En realidad, las únicas personas que pueden cambiar la conversación [son] las víctimas del cambio climático”.

En Austin, Texas, Frances Acuña trabaja como organizadora en Go Austin/Vamos Austin (GAVA), una coalición de habitantes y dirigentes comunitarios que buscan apoyar una vida saludable y estabilidad barrial en Eastern Crescent, que incluye Dove Springs, en Austin. Una de sus funciones es ayudar a los vecinos a prepararse mejor para las catástrofes naturales de a poco, por ejemplo, mediante la contratación de un seguro contra inundaciones, charlas con los agentes de las aseguradoras y conocimiento de las rutas de evacuación. Juntó las pertenencias empapadas de los propietarios desplazados por las inundaciones, invitó a funcionarios de la ciudad a reunirse con los residentes locales en su sala de estar y analizó situaciones de emergencia, como cuando una pareja mayor que tuvo que evacuar tras una inundación se encontró con tres perros, dos gatos y sin lugar adonde ir. 

“Solían gustarme las tormentas con rayos, relámpagos y lluvia torrencial. Era como ver a Dios”, dice Acuña. Sin embargo, admite que ahora mira nerviosamente por la ventana al poco tiempo de que empieza una tormenta. 

El programa de compra de Austin en su área brinda ayuda de reubicación a los propietarios, que tuvieron la oportunidad de rechazar u oponerse a las ofertas de compra que recibieron. Muchos no querían marcharse y protestaron sin éxito para que la ciudad implemente soluciones, como un muro de contención contra inundaciones o la limpieza del canal. 

A pesar de las inundaciones cercanas y las llamadas y cartas que recibe de agentes y emprendedores inmobiliarios, Acuña no planea abandonar su vivienda en el futuro inmediato. Dice que participar en conversaciones de Climigration Network con otros dirigentes locales que guían a sus comunidades en inundaciones, incendios y sequías la ayudó mucho: “Al menos para mí, fue un proceso muy terapéutico”. 

Además de la guía, la información que brindaron esos dirigentes de primera línea (provenientes de 10 comunidades de color y latinas de bajos recursos desde Misisipi hasta Nebraska y Washington) derivó en una declaración que reconoce “la gran migración climática de los Estados Unidos” y que exige la creación de una agencia de migración climática que “ayude a planificar, facilite y apoye la migración en los Estados Unidos”. 

Muchas de las sugerencias del grupo, la mayoría de las cuales apuntan directamente a funcionarios gubernamentales, pueden ponerse en práctica de manera fácil, casi automática: brindar información clara. Se debe optimizar el proceso de compra de viviendas de la FEMA a fin de que los propietarios no tengan que esperar cinco años para recibir el dinero. Se deben reducir los requisitos para el otorgamiento local de préstamos federales en las comunidades pequeñas y con pocos recursos. 

Otra recomendación es abordar el contexto más amplio de la desigualdad racial y aceptar que se demostró que los programas de la FEMA benefician más a los propietarios ricos.

“Aquí la gente vive en tiendas de campaña”, dice un testigo en la declaración. “Miles aún no tienen vivienda desde las tormentas. Me frustra porque sé que el gobierno tiene el dinero y la capacidad de ayudarnos. La única razón por la que no podemos recibir los servicios que necesitamos es el código postal”.

Esta declaración presiona a las autoridades para que apoyen los planes que les permiten a las comunidades unidas reubicarse juntas, en lugar de separar a los propietarios.

Es una opción que Terri Straka de Carolina del Sur apreciaría. Como Acuña, es una dirigente activa en su comunidad que participó en conversaciones de Climigration Network y se unió al pedido de una oficina de migración climática nueva. Vive en Rosewood Estates, un barrio de trabajadores en Socastee, Carolina del Sur, sobre el Canal Intracostero del Atlántico, a las afueras de Myrtle Beach, desde hace casi 30 años. Durante mucho tiempo, las inundaciones no fueron un problema, pero eso cambió recientemente: en 2016, el condado de Straka se vio afectado por al menos 10 huracanes y tormentas tropicales. Los pagos nacionales promedio de los seguros contra inundaciones en esa zona quintuplicaron su valor en menos de una década, desde un poco menos de US$ 14.000 hasta US$ 70.000. En la inundación más reciente, la casa de campo de 120 metros cuadrados de Straka recibió 1,2 metros de agua que tardó dos semanas en desagotarse.

“No es fabulosa, pero es mi hogar”, dice Straka. “Crie a todos mis hijos aquí. Conozco a todos”. Sus padres viven en el barrio. Los adolescentes locales aprovechan las calles para aprender a conducir. “Vi a tantos niños crecer”.

Hoy en día, dice, “me llaman Terri Jean, la reina de Rosewood”. Es un nombre que se ganó tras las inundaciones del barrio, ya que representó a sus vecinos en visitas a las oficinas de vivienda del condado y la FEMA local, llamó por teléfono a funcionarios de recuperación estatales y organizó protestas en reuniones del consejo del condado. Muchos de los vecinos se habrían mudado después de las primeras inundaciones si hubiesen podido, dice Straka. Ella y otros presionaron para obtener un programa de compra, pero las ofertas con financiación federal eran muy bajas para cuando llegaron en 2021. Los miembros de la comunidad siguen presionando para obtener ofertas mejores. Muchos de sus vecinos proveen servicios en el pujante sector turístico de Myrtle Beach. Otros se jubilaron con un ingreso fijo. Muchos ya habían destinado dinero a las reparaciones de sus viviendas. Para otros, el dinero de la compra solo pagaría la hipoteca actual, por lo que no cubriría el monto necesario para comprar viviendas nuevas similares, y mucho menos el seguro contra inundaciones. “Si uno vive en las afueras de Myrtle Beach es porque, en primer lugar, no puede darse el lujo de vivir en Myrtle Beach”, dice Straka. “Incluso si tuviese la opción, si la compra fuese beneficiosa en términos económicos, ¿adónde iría? ¿Cómo lo haría?”.  

Terri Straka, left, with other members of Rosewood Strong, an advocacy group  she cofounded in her South Carolina community. After years of flooding, a  county-led buyout program began this year. Credit: Courtesy of Terri Straka.
Terri Straka, a la izquierda, con otros miembros de Rosewood Strong, un grupo activista que cofundó en su comunidad de Carolina del Sur. Tras años de inundaciones, este año se inició un programa de compra liderado por el condado. Crédito: cortesía de Terri Straka.

Climigration Network y sus socios están abordando estas preguntas desde distintos ángulos. Las tres organizaciones comunitarias que trabajan con la red están encaminadas para realizar sus propias encuestas y usar los resultados, a fin de comenzar a desarrollar estrategias locales este verano. La red espera crear un pequeño programa de subsidios que podría financiar esfuerzos similares en otras comunidades. Mientras tanto, los miembros formaron seis grupos de trabajo con expertos técnicos y dirigentes de la comunidad, con el objetivo de enfocarse en áreas diversas, desde políticas e investigación hasta la creación de historias y comunicados. Se reúnen periódicamente para debatir cómo identificar y abordar los desafíos a los que se enfrentan las comunidades. En conjunto, estos esfuerzos son un intento de sentar las bases para un nuevo panorama de adaptación al clima.

“No todos están haciendo el esfuerzo para construir un sistema que ayude a 13 millones de personas a mudarse en los próximos 50 años”, dice Kelly Leilani Main, directora ejecutiva de Buy-In Community Planning, presidenta del grupo Ecosistemas y Personas de Climigration Network y miembro de su Consejo interino. “Vamos trabajando sobre la marcha”.

Según Main y otros miembros de la red, hacerlo requiere que se sigan forjando vínculos de trabajo de confianza con los habitantes. Como Acuña, Straka dice que compartir sus propias experiencias con otros en Climigration Network fue un primer paso fundamental. “Cuando teníamos reuniones, era completamente honesta”, dice Straka. “Me daban la capacidad de ser vulnerable porque lo soy”. 

Agrega que el proceso completo estuvo muy lejos de sus experiencias chocándose contra paredes con funcionarios federales y estatales. Los funcionarios con los que trató “no lo entienden. Para ellos es trabajo. Van a la oficina y tienen que hacer estos proyectos”, dice ella. “Involucrarse a un nivel personal es lo que hará la gran diferencia. Eso es lo que necesitamos”.  

 


 

Alexandra Tempus está escribiendo un libro sobre la gran migración climática de los Estados Unidos para St. Martin’s Press. 

Imagen principal: Frances Acuña camina por el área de una cuenca de detención destinada a ayudar a proteger el barrio de Austin, Texas, en el que vive de las inundaciones. Crédito: Austin American-Statesman/USA TODAY Network.

 


 

Referencias 

Climigration Network. 2021. Lead with Listening: A Guidebook for Community Conversations on Climate Migration. https://www.climigration.org/guidebook.

FEMA NAC. 2020. “National Advisory Council Report to the Administrator”. Noviembre. Washington, DC: Agencia Federal para el Manejo de Emergencias.

Kaplan, Sarah y Andrew Ba Tran. 2022. “More Than 40 Percent of Americans Live in Counties Hit by Climate Disasters in 2021”. The Washington Post. 5 de enero.

La Casa Blanca. 2021. “Report on the Impact of Climate Change on Migration”. Octubre. Washington, DC: La Casa Blanca.

Wing, Oliver E.J., y Paul D. Bates, Andrew M. Smith, Christopher C. Sampson, Kris A. Johnson, Joseph Fargione y Philip Morefield. 2018. “Estimates of Current and Future Flood Risk in the Conterminous United States”. Environmental Research Letters 13(3). Febrero.

 

Course

Scenario Planning for Urban Futures

Maio 17, 2023 - Maio 19, 2023

Offered in inglês


Create Resilient and Sustainable Communities with Scenario Planning

Scenario planning is a practice through which communities plan for an uncertain future by exploring multiple possibilities of what might happen. The practice guides planners, community members, and other stakeholders through considerations of various potential futures and explores how to effectively respond to and plan for them.

In the course, urban planning professionals will practice applying scenario planning techniques with leading practitioners and develop concrete ideas for how to implement scenarios in specific contexts, such as addressing climate change impacts, demographic shifts, or financial shocks.

Learning Objectives

  • Develop knowledge and skills to use scenario planning techniques to foster more effective urban planning practice
  • Apply a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques used by scenario planners to analyze trends, construct scenario narratives, and model scenarios using software tools

Course participants will dive into scenario planning through a deep examination of theory, analysis of case studies, and participation in interactive activities.

This HyFlex program is available concurrently via a 3-day in-person session in Ann Arbor, Michigan, or remote-live via Zoom.


Details

Date
Maio 17, 2023 - Maio 19, 2023
Time
8:00 a.m. - 4:30 p.m.
Registration Period
Novembro 16, 2022 - Maio 10, 2023
Language
inglês
Registration Fee
$1,700.00
Educational Credit Type
Lincoln Institute certificate

Keywords

Planejamento de Uso do Solo, Planejamento

Shifting Gears

Why Communities Are Eliminating Off-Street Parking Requirements—and What Comes Next
By Catie Gould, Outubro 12, 2022

 

Columbus, Ohio, invented the first known off-street parking requirement for an apartment building in 1923. After nearly a hundred years, the results are in, and they’re not good. 

Last year, an assessment of the local zoning code—commissioned by the city as part of a comprehensive code revision process—concluded that off-street parking requirements were “not effective” and “often poorly matched to true parking demand.” 

That mismatch has gotten worse over time. Today’s parking requirements in Columbus are far higher than their cousins from the city’s midcentury zoning code. In 1954, an apartment building with 100 one-bedroom units was required to have 100 parking spaces; today it has to have 150. For a 2,500-square-foot restaurant, nine required parking spaces became 34, in the 90 percent of the city not covered by special overlay districts. These ratios are out of step with the local market, leading builders to request parking reductions more than any other type of zoning variance. City and regional plans have recommended reducing parking requirements and making them more consistent. 

Columbus is not alone. Across the United States, decades of similar parking requirements have led to a glut: researchers estimate that for every car in the country, there are at least three parking spaces—and some have suggested the number is closer to eight spaces.  

This oversupply has created a host of problems: parking requirements can inflate housing costs, block buildings from being adapted to new uses, and contribute to sprawl, making additional driving (and parking) necessary. They create an administrative burden. And the impervious surfaces of parking lots increase the risk of flooding and contribute to the urban heat island effect. 

But there is good news: of all the harms traditional zoning has inflicted on communities, parking requirements are the easiest to fix, said Sara Bronin, former chair of the Hartford, Connecticut, Planning and Zoning Commission. Bronin was at the helm in 2017, when Hartford became one of the first cities in the United States to eliminate residential and commercial parking mandates. The year before, city leaders had tested the waters by eliminating requirements in the downtown area, a move that yielded new development projects and new proposals for reuse. “Every community should be eliminating their parking requirements,” Bronin said.  

Each year, more cities are eliminating or reducing such mandates. In 2021, cities from Minneapolis to Jackson, Tennessee, eliminated minimum parking requirements from their zoning codes. In the week that this article was drafted alone, cities from Spokane to Chicago to Burlington, Vermont, rolled back parking mandates. 

Communities might reduce their parking requirements because they are trying to reinvent themselves by attracting new businesses and development, accommodate population growth with space-efficient infill, or focus more on transit and walkability. Regardless of the reason, parking reform advocates say this land use regulation could finally be on its way out. 

“We’re going to look back at this as just this weird, late-20th century aberration,” predicts Patrick Siegman, an economist and planner who has been studying parking since 1992, including as a partner at the national transportation planning firm Nelson Nygaard. “We created something wildly inefficient.” 

Hartford Leads the Way 

Like many industrial cities in the United States, Hartford saw dramatic population decline during the second half of the 20th century. In 1960, half of the people working in Hartford lived there, many walking or taking transit to jobs downtown; by 1980, less than a quarter of its workforce called the city home. Many white residents had fled for the suburbs and the overall population was declining. The repercussions of this demographic and economic shift are visible in the city’s bounty of parking lots: to accommodate the increase in car commuters, the city essentially paved over swaths of its downtown. 

As historian Daniel Sterner put it, “Hartford is famous for having so much torn down.” Not even the city’s first skyscraper, built in 1912, survived the demolition boom. It was razed to make way for a taller office tower, but those plans were abandoned in 1990 as the country entered a recession. The prominent corner lot became, and remains, surface parking. 

University of Connecticut professor Norman Garrick and his team found that from 1960 to 2000, the amount of land dedicated to parking lots in the downtown business district tripled, nearly equaling the amount of land underneath all the adjacent buildings. “The increase in parking was part of the collapse of the city,” Garrick said. “It’s typical of a lot of American cities.” 


Researchers have determined that the land dedicated to surface parking lots in downtown Hartford, Connecticut, tripled between 1960 and 2000. Credit: Christopher McCahill and Norman Garrick. 

Even without the research, there was little debate that Hartford had an oversupply of parking. “I don’t think every city needs a full-on parking history, or parking analysis,” said Bronin. “Most people should be able to just look around and say, ‘there’s a lot of parking in this city.’” 

The overabundance of parking came at a great cost for the city, Garrick’s team found in a report released in 2014. They estimated that the city was missing out on property tax revenue to the tune of $1,200 per downtown parking space, or about $50 million a year. That was a significant amount for a city whose downtown buildings were generating $75 million in annual tax revenue. 

Attracting investment is critically important for Connecticut’s capital city—and particularly challenging. More than half of the city’s real estate is nontaxable, because the land is owned by the government or nonprofit institutions. The rest is subject to the highest property tax rate in the state. Eliminating parking requirements citywide is one way to create a more flexible, inviting environment for development. 

“It’s easy to say we have no parking minimums, as opposed to ‘what zone?’,” said Aaron Gill, current vice chair of Hartford’s Planning and Zoning Commission. The biggest hurdle now is convincing developers they have new options, Gill said. He encourages developers to revisit parcels they might have discounted in the past, and to review how much parking is actually being used in previous developments.  

The strategy seems to be working. The quasi-public Capital Region Development Authority (CRDA) has funded more than 2,800 new homes downtown since 2012, aiming to build a critical mass of residents to support retail and other services. Mike Freimuth, executive director of the CRDA, said the new zoning code has helped reduce costs and increased the use of existing parking garages. 

One of the CRDA projects, Teachers Village, involved converting an office building that had been vacant for 20 years into housing for area educators. Thirty percent of the apartments were designated as affordable. Prior to the code change, more than one parking space would have been required for each unit, but the renovated building has only 18 underground parking spaces for 60 households. The spaces are leased separately from the apartments, saving money for those who don’t need a parking spot. According to estimates based on 2016 Census data, more than 30 percent of Hartford households don’t even own a car. 

Other redevelopment projects have cut deals with adjacent parking garages, which are also adapting to the new world of remote work, to provide an off-street parking option for residents for an additional fee. Two derelict commercial buildings on Pearl Street, which Freimuth used to joke were the largest pigeon coops in the state, went that route when the buildings were renovated into 258 new homes. A few blocks away, a former Steiger’s department store is being converted into 97 new apartments with commercial space below. 

The CRDA is also involved in an ambitious project known as Bushnell South, which aims to convert a 20-acre area dominated by surface parking into a vibrant, walkable, mixed-use neighborhood with up to 1,200 apartments and townhouses, restaurants and retail, green space, and cultural attractions. The city was reviewing proposals from developers this summer with the goal of moving forward this fall. Although some developers have expressed concern that the city is building more residential space than the market can support, Freimuth is eager to proceed. “This land has been laying fallow for 50 years,” he told the Hartford Courant. “Why do we have to keep on waiting?” 


Planners hope to convert an area of downtown Hartford currently dominated by surface parking into a mixed-use neighborhood known as Bushnell South. Credits: Mark Mirko/Hartford Courant, Goody Clancy/Bushnell South Planning Consortium. 

The Benefits of a Citywide Shift 

On the edge of downtown Fayetteville, Arkansas, a building that had stood vacant for nearly 40 years now houses a local restaurant with a rooftop patio. Down the road, a formerly abandoned gas station is back in use as retail space. The reuse of these once-forgotten properties was made possible several years ago, when Fayetteville’s city council voted to remove commercial parking requirements citywide. 

While most cities start with reducing parking mandates in a central business district, like Hartford did, planners in Fayetteville were fielding requests about properties throughout the city, and opted against defining a smaller boundary. At 44 square miles, Fayetteville is nearly 2.5 times larger than Hartford, with 70 percent of the population. 

“As a city planner, you receive phone calls about what’s possible with this property,” Fayetteville planner Quin Thompson explained. “What I began to see was the same properties over and over again. Some of those properties were downtown, but a lot weren’t.” None of the parcels had enough space to meet the parking requirements in place at the time. 

The planning staff approached the city council with the idea of eliminating commercial requirements citywide. Some of these properties were so constrained, they explained, it was impossible to imagine how they could be redeveloped under the current rules. They also said investors taking on the financial risk of a project were best suited to determine their own parking needs, and would act as a backstop even when the city was no longer regulating off-street parking spaces. In October 2015, Fayetteville’s city council agreed. 

What happened next? “The buildings that I had identified as being perpetually and perhaps permanently unusable were very quickly purchased, redeveloped, and are in use right now,” said Thompson. “I can’t think of any that are still out there that I had used as case studies that haven’t been redeveloped.” 


The elimination of commercial parking requirements in Fayetteville, Arkansas, made new projects possible, including the conversion of a long-vacant building into the busy Feed and Folly restaurant. Credits: Katie Mihalevich, Realtor®; Courtesy of Feed and Folly. 

Thompson and his colleagues were right that the distinction between parking needs in a central city versus outlying neighborhoods can be arbitrary. In the lead-up to the removal of parking requirements in Edmonton in 2020, a citywide study of 277 sites found no clear geographic trend that related to how full parking lots were, even after factoring in variables like population density, walkability as measured by Walk Score, or drive-alone rate. Of all the sites surveyed, only 7 percent neared capacity at the busiest times of day. It was far more common for parking lots to remain half empty, as was the case for 47 percent of observed sites. 

In Fayetteville and other cities, eliminating parking minimums citywide has had another benefit: reducing administrative work and freeing up city staff to work on other things. “One of the things you find in American cities is that they’ve got all of these college-educated planners, many of whom actually have graduate degrees, and what they’re doing is spending hour after hour processing parking variances,” explained Siegman. 

Kevin Robinson was one of those planners, until he was hired as director of Planning and Development Services for Albemarle, North Carolina. To his surprise, the city had almost no parking requirements, having eliminated virtually all of them two decades prior. “However you came about it,” he recalls telling city officials, “I think you’re on the right track.” 

Towns where he had worked previously had only reduced parking requirements in central business districts, not citywide. “From an administrative standpoint, it’s a heck of a lot easier to deal with,” said Robinson. “Quite honestly, a lot of times [parking minimums] are very arbitrary numbers,” Robinson said. Now that he no longer has to enforce them, he has more time to spend on other aspects of development—including a downtown parking plan. He has plenty of data to rebut complaints that there isn’t enough parking. Even at peak hours, public parking never gets more than half full, his heatmaps indicate. 

Robinson acknowledges that eliminating parking minimums wasn’t a cure-all: “We are still seeing far more parking being built than is absolutely necessary.” (See sidebar to learn how the shift has played out in other cities.) Construction in Albemarle is picking up as people get priced out of nearby cities like Charlotte. In the last two years, this small city of 16,000 has approved permits for 3,000 new housing units, with another 1,000 in the works, including middle housing like duplexes and townhouses. 

Robinson is nervous that the parking requirements, which were discarded at a time when the city wasn’t growing, might return as development accelerates. “I’m trying to keep them from going in that direction,” he said. His concerns aren’t unfounded. 

When Mandates Make a U-Turn 

It took almost a decade for a new apartment building with no parking to arrive in Portland after the city waived requirements near transit in 2002. The political backlash came more swiftly. As Portland’s rental market tightened, the city found itself with the second-lowest vacancy rate in the country in 2012. Apartment construction was booming, and buildings without off-street parking were becoming increasingly common. 

Then controversy erupted. The epicenter was a 13-block section of Division Street, a car-oriented commercial corridor experiencing a building boom. By the time the issue made it to the front pages of Willamette Week, the local weekly paper, 11 new multifamily buildings were under development, seven with no parking at all.  

A city-commissioned survey of 115 residents of new apartment buildings would show that 72 percent of the respondents owned cars, with the majority parking on neighborhood streets. Even though the same survey showed that the areas around the buildings had plenty of available parking, neighbors didn’t perceive it that way.  

Mayor Charlie Hales, who had championed the removal of parking mandates as a council member in 2002, even floated the idea of instituting a building moratorium until the zoning code could be sorted out. Hales told Willamette Week that he had anticipated developers might build one parking spot instead of two, but hadn’t imagined banks would finance housing with no parking at all. 

In response to the outcry, Portland’s city council reinstituted a parking requirement for multifamily developments with more than 30 units. Those larger buildings would need to provide one parking space for every three or four units, depending on the building size. “That was the strategic retreat,” Hales explained. “We decided to adjust our ideal slightly to a watered-down version in order to reduce the controversy.” 

Hales, who is no longer mayor, still believes strongly in eliminating parking requirements. “There’s some things we really don’t need to regulate,” he said recently. “Minimum number of parking spaces is one of them.” Given the political pressure of the time, he has a hard time imagining how things could have worked out differently. 

While supporters of parking mandates prevailed in that case, the matter was far from settled. Several years after the 2013 brouhaha, regulated affordable housing near transit regained its exemption from parking requirements, after rising rents and economic displacement prompted Portland to declare a housing state of emergency and elect a tenant advocate to city council. Portland adopted an inclusionary zoning policy that same year, requiring multifamily buildings to set aside units for affordable housing—and waiving residential parking requirements for those buildings. 

Looking back, Portland activist Tony Jordan, who went on to launch the national Parking Reform Network, thinks the city was foolish to derail the housing construction wave. “Why would you do anything” to make developers think twice about investing in larger buildings, he asked. The way the code was written, adding one more unit to a 30-unit building came with “a penalty of six parking spaces, incentivizing builders to stay under the limit. “Even if we only lost 60 apartments,” he said, “that’s a housing subsidy that we just threw away—and for what?” 

 


 

Communities with No Parking Minimums 

According to the Parking Reform Network, the following communities do not have citywide minimum parking requirements (dates of implementation indicated when known). Learn more about these and other changes to U.S. parking mandates at www.parkingreform.org

California: Alameda (2021), San Francisco (2018), Emeryville (2019) 

• Connecticut: Bridgeport (2022), Hartford (2017) 

• Georgia: Dunwoody (2019) 

• Indiana: South Bend (2021) 

• Michigan: Ann Arbor (2022), Mancelona, Ecorse (2020), River Rouge (2021) 

• Minnesota: Minneapolis (2021), St. Paul (2021) 

• Missouri: Branson 

• New Hampshire: Seabrook (2019), Dover (2015) 

• New York: Buffalo (2017), Canandaigua, Hudson (2019), Saranac Lake (2016) 

• North Carolina: Raleigh (2022) 

• Tennessee: Jackson (2021) 

• Texas: Bandera, Bastrop (2019) 

• Alberta: Edmonton (2020), High River (2021) 

 


 

Stopping Parking Spillover 

When parking complaints bubbled up in Portland’s Northwest neighborhood in 2016, the city was ready to try a different strategy: directly managing on-street parking. A local parking advisory committee had petitioned Portland’s city council to apply the citywide parking requirements to the growing district, which had historically been exempted. But when a study showed that those regulations would have made 23 percent of newly constructed homes in the neighborhood illegal, the council opted to improve the district’s fledgling parking permit program instead. 

“When city staff manage on-street parking properly, they can prevent that on-street parking from getting overcrowded with a 99 percent success rate,” said Siegman, who has spent much of his career studying spillover parking concerns. The problem, he said, is that almost no one has training in how to manage street parking in a way that is both effective and politically popular. On-street parking management is not part of the core curriculum for planners or transportation engineers. 

“What you’re essentially doing with on-street parking spaces is taking a valuable resource that belongs to the public and setting up rights to determine who gets to use it,” said Siegman. Any hotel manager knows that once the keys are gone, there is no vacancy. Yet cities often hand out multiple residential permits for every street space, and wait until the problem is so bad that neighbors have to petition for curbside management. When a neighborhood has more drivers seeking permits than there are on-street spaces, there are a number of ways to ensure balance. Boundaries for a parking district could exclude new buildings or households with driveways, or restrict the number of permits to the street frontage of the lot—forcing developers and incoming residents to make a plan for storing cars off-site.

 


 

Left to the Market, How Much Parking Gets Built? 

In Buffalo, New York, which struck down parking requirements in April 2017, a review of 36 major developments showed that 53 percent of projects still opted to include at least as many parking spaces as the previous code had required. The developers who did propose building less parking averaged 60 fewer parking spaces than the old minimum required, avoiding over eight acres of unnecessary asphalt and saving up to $30 million in construction costs. 

Seattle saw similar results after eliminating parking requirements near transit in 2012. A study of 868 residential developments permitted in the following five years found that 70 percent of new buildings in areas not subject to parking requirements still chose to have on-site parking. Collectively, the new buildings included 40 percent fewer parking spaces than would have previously been required, saving an estimated $537 million in construction costs and freeing up 144 acres of land. 

 


 

Siegman estimates the costs of setting up an effective parking permit program could be somewhere in the neighborhood of $100,000—a bargain compared to the cost of building parking, which can run as much as $50,000 per space. “There are all kinds of different feelings about what’s fair,” Siegman said, “but you can often come to a solution that has durable majority political support.” 

That’s what officials in Vancouver, British Columbia, did in 2017 to resolve crowded curbs in the West End. Despite 94 percent of residents having access to an off-street parking space, many still preferred to park on the street. Over 6,000 drivers had opted for the $6 a month permit for the chance to park in one of the 2,747 on-street spaces. When the city raised permit prices to $30 per month—more in line with what private garages charged—and installed more parking meters, curb congestion cleared up. Before that change, only one out of five blocks met the city’s standards of being less than 85 percent full at the busiest time of day. Within two years of the pricing adjustments, all of the blocks measured below that threshold, making it far easier to find a parking space. 

The Next Wave of Parking Reform 

More and more, champions of eliminating parking mandates are getting elected to offices and planning commissions, according to Jordan, of the Parking Reform Network. “One person can really get the idea and push it through,” he said. The growing number of cities that have taken this deregulatory action provides political cover for policy makers who have been hesitant to go first. 

But parking reform advocates say change should and will happen beyond the local level. Since “the perceived benefits of instituting parking regulations [have been] almost entirely local,” Siegman said, he thinks almost all of the productive reform to get rid of minimum parking laws is going to come from regional, state, or national governments. 

A wave of legislation against parking mandates has been gathering momentum on the West Coast. In 2020, Washington State quietly capped excessive parking requirements near transit for market-rate and affordable housing. California’s third attempt to limit local parking requirements near public transit succeeded in September with the signing of AB 2097. That came on the heels of another statewide rollback in Oregon, where a state land use commission struck down parking mandates for projects near transit, affordable housing, and small homes across the state’s eight largest metro regions, which house 60 percent of Oregon’s population.  

By July 2023, nearly 50 cities in Oregon will need to choose between wholly eliminating minimum parking requirements or implementing a suite of other tools to manage parking and comply with the new administrative rule. They are sure to have lots of company, as municipalities and states across the nation weigh the harm these regulations have caused against the 20th century dream of free and easy parking. 

Aaron Gill, of the Hartford Planning and Zoning Commission, has some simple advice for jurisdictions considering removing parking minimums: “I would say just do it. Don’t waste time having a discussion as to if it’s going to work or not. The reality is we have way too much parking in this country.” 

 


 

Catie Gould is a transportation researcher with the Seattle-based nonprofit think tank Sightline Institute. 

Lead image: Fordham Heights, New York. Credit: krblokhin via iStock/Getty Images Plus.