Topic: Land Conservation

A panda cub sits among the branches of a eucalyptus tree

Sponge Cities and Panda Habitat

The Nature Conservancy's Foray into China
By James N. Levitt and Emily Myron, October 10, 2017

Paradoxically, China is emerging as an innovative global leader in green initiatives, just as it has overtaken the United States as the world’s biggest source of carbon dioxide emissions (Global Carbon Atlas 2016). “After decades of rapid expansion brought smog and contaminated soil,” noted the official Xinhua News Agency, “China is steadily shifting from GDP obsession to a balanced growth philosophy that puts more emphasis on the environment” (Xiang 2017).

China generated more solar power in 2016 than any other nation. In January 2017, the government announced plans to invest RMB 2.39 trillion (US$361 billion) in renewable energy generation by 2020, according to China’s National Energy Administration. This September, the government also promised to ban the sale of gasoline- and diesel-powered cars at an unspecified date (Bradsher 2017). And to help meet its commitments to the Paris Climate Accords, China will launch the world’s largest carbon “cap and trade” market in November 2017, targeting coal-fired power generation and five other large carbon-emitting industrial sectors (Fialka 2016, Zhu 2017).

Land-based green initiatives include “sponge cities,” designed to manage storm water runoff and prevent urban flooding, and conservation efforts to protect water quality and preserve wildlife habitat. The Peking University–Lincoln Institute Center for Urban Development and Land Policy (PLC) is collaborating with The Nature Conservancy’s China program (TNC China), providing technical support for a sponge city pilot in Shenzhen and exploring innovative conservation finance mechanisms for China.

The two organizations are complementary in terms of expertise: TNC China has done a lot of ground work to turn sciences and technologies into practice. With the Lincoln Institute providing an international knowledge base, the PLC can focus on China’s conservation strategy, policy, and finance. “The Lincoln Institute has done a lot of research on land conservation in the United States and elsewhere around the world, and the international knowledge developed from this work helps China to address its enormous conservation challenges,” says Zhi Liu, director of the PLC and Lincoln’s China program.

“For a few years, we have been looking for a way to engage ourselves in China’s land conservation. The partnership with TNC China—starting with sponge city development or, more broadly, conservation for cities—provides us a perfect entry point. As one of the partnering institutes in the sponge city pilot project in Shenzhen, we are focusing on strategic and institutional frameworks and long-term finance. We hope that the work in Shenzhen will also help lay a research foundation for national policy making,” says Liu.

Sponge Cities

China’s unprecedented urban growth has taken a hard toll on the landscape. In 1960, it had no metropolitan areas with populations over 10 million. Now it has 15. In 50 years, the urban population multiplied by a factor of six: from 131 million residents or 17.9 percent of total population in 1966, to 781 million or 56.7 percent by 2016 (World Bank 2017). And by 2030, one billion people, or 70 percent of China’s total population, are expected to live in cities (Myers 2016). Resulting proliferation of hardscaped roads and building sites have created a vast expansion of impervious surfaces that prevent storm water from seeping into the earth to replenish ground water sources and mitigate the threat of major flooding. In recent years, increasingly severe storms and other surface water running at street level in Chinese cities have presented life-threatening peril to urban residents, such as the 2012 flood in Beijing that killed 79 and caused RMB 11.64 billion (US$1.76 billion) in damages, according to Xinhua News Agency.

This storm event and other recent floods spurred the Chinese government to announce a national program to develop a series of “sponge cities.” Shenzhen in the Pearl River Delta and 29 other cities, from Wuhan in Central China to Baotou in Inner Mongolia (Leach 2016), received instructions and incentives to develop green infrastructure—including bioswales, pervious paving technologies, and rain gardens to absorb storm water into the ground. The government will test the results of the pilot projects with the intention of replicating proven-effective practices on a nationwide basis.

By the government’s definition, a city will reach the “sponge” standard when 70 percent of rainfall is absorbed into the ground, relieving strain on traditionally constructed drainage systems and minimizing floods. The goal is that 20 percent of urban built-up areas in pilot cities will reach sponge standard over the course of five years.

TNC China is the key partner and technical adviser to Shenzhen’s sponge city project. TNC invited the PLC and several other institutions to join the effort, providing insight on policy, strategy, and finance. The pilot demonstration project in Shenzhen includes four components: pilot demonstration sub-projects for industrial plants, office buildings, schools, urban neighborhoods, etc.; dissemination and upgrading of past experiments; an education and promotion campaign; and studies of strategy, policy, and financing mechanisms.

“Our work on the sponge city strategy, policy, and finance is currently underway,” says Liu. “We have looked extensively into relevant international experiences from the United States, Germany, the Netherlands, Singapore, and other countries. The sub-projects of the Shenzhen pilot demonstration give us a great sense of which technologies are most feasible, as well as their benefits and costs,” he adds.

The major challenge is how to develop long-term financial mechanisms for sponge city development. Sponge infrastructure is costly, estimated at over RMB 100 million (US$15.08 million) per square kilometer of built-up urban area. It is a public good in nature. The question is who will pay for it. Today, Shenzhen’s sponge city project is supported by central government subsidies, the municipal budget, and businesses volunteering to build sponge infrastructure facilities, such as rain gardens and rain roofs on their own properties. But the available financial resources are far from adequate to meet the target.

“We are investigating other countries’ experiences with financing rainstorm management,” says Liu. “For example, the city of Philadelphia imposes storm water fees based on the amount of impervious surface that a parcel contains. The city also offers several programs to assist nonresidential customers to lower their storm water fees through green projects that reduce the amount of impervious surface on their properties. In the context of China, we believe that the long-term financial solutions will require some careful consideration of fiscal policy reform at the local level,” he says.

Nature Sanctuaries and Land Trust Reserves

TNC China is also active in the conservation of resources beyond China’s cities. In the past several years, TNC China has adapted the American land trust model to local conditions to protect land, biodiversity habitat, and ecosystem services, from air and water purification to flood and drought mitigation. “We’ve been testing this localized land trust model as a way to expand society’s ability to protect and sustainably manage China’s most important lands and waters, while providing green livelihood solutions for local communities and creating a mechanism to finance long-term reserve management through private contributions. We believe that this new model could become an important supplement to China’s current protected area system,” says Science Director of TNC China, Dr. Jin Tong. Building on this successful experience and taking advantage of access to international knowledge through the International Land Conservation Network (ILCN), a project of the Lincoln Institute, the PLC is exploring land conservation finance for China more broadly.

Land trusts are an American innovation. As chaitable organizations, land trusts leverage the power of the private and nonprofit sectors to conserve land by acquiring it outright, and owning title or fee ownership to it; by acquiring conservation easements, also known as conservation restrictions or conservation servitudes; or by serving as the stewards or managers of protected lands owned by others. Indeed, about 56 million U.S. acres (about 23 million hectares) have been protected in the United States by local, regional, and national land trusts as of year-end 2015, according to the 2015 Land Trust Census compiled by the Land Trust Alliance in cooperation with the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. The United States is believed to be the global leader in private and civic land conservation, though no comprehensive figures compare nations around the world in terms of private and civic land conservation. Land conserved by NGOs and other private and civic actors complement the 7.9 billion acres (3.2 billion hectares) protected, principally, by governments around the world (UNDP-WCMC 2014).

The world’s first regional land trust was established in Massachusetts in 1891. Known today as The Trustees of Reservations, that group continues to protect exceptionally beautiful, naturally important, and historically significant properties in Massachusetts through fee ownership and conservation easements. From that small beginning, more than 1,000 land trust organizations are now spread across the United States. They exist in every state of the union and continue to improve the pace, quality, and permanence of protected lands across the nation, providing multiple public benefits. This work greatly benefits from U.S. federal tax credits for conservation easements to land trusts.

The practice of land conservation by private individuals and civic organizations has also spread across the world. Private and civic land conservation groups exist in more than 130 countries and territories in North and South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and Oceania, according to a recent survey conducted by the ILCN (ILCN 2017). While the legal context and financial incentives for land conservation in the private and civic sectors differ from country to country, the motivation to protect and carefully steward land for the good of present and future generations is a constant across the globe.

Now land trusts, in a new form, may have the potential to help reshape the way that China approaches the creation and management of protected areas. Currently, more than 15 percent of China’s land is designated as a protected area, and more than 2,700 nature reserves have the highest level of legal protection in that nation. However, significant challenges continue to daunt the Chinese network of protected lands. Many protected areas lack adequate financial resources, enforcement and governance mechanisms, and management staff. In order to strengthen and expand the existing network of protected areas, TNC China and its partners are working to develop land trust analogues that work in the Chinese context.

A 2008 Chinese policy that allows private individuals and organizations to assume management rights on collectively owned forest land opened the door for a conversation about land trusts. In 2011, TNC China initiated a collaboration with the local government of Sichuan Province’s Pingwu County to explore the establishment of the country’s first land trust reserve. In keeping with the local nature of the land trust movement, TNC China then catalyzed the birth of a new local entity—the Sichuan Nature Conservation Foundation (SNCF)—which was later renamed the Paradise Foundation. In 2013, the SNCF signed the nation’s first conservation lease, allowing it to manage the parcel for the next 50 years.

The local government, TNC China, and the foundation promptly designated the leased land a county-level nature reserve, named Laohegou Land Trust Reserve, thereby conserving over 27,000 acres (about 11,000 hectares) of important giant panda habitat. This reserve’s strategic location connects existing protected areas for endangered species, such as the giant panda and the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey, thereby establishing a large conservation corridor. The interconnected corridor effectively creates a large territory within which anti-poaching regulations can be rigorously enforced. Similarly, within the corridor, local streams that run free can be protected from diversion into hydropower.

The reserve is also important from a research perspective. Scientists have carried out a baseline inventory of wildlife and set up dozens of camera traps to learn more about the numerous important species present. Already, the cameras have captured rare footage of a giant panda eating the remains of a takin (a goat-antelope found in Asian mountain ranges and highlands), reinforcing the relatively new discovery that pandas are omnivores, occasionally consuming meat.

For day-to-day management of the reserve, the foundation sponsored the creation of a local entity, the Laohegou Nature Conservation Center, which has in turn hired nearby residents to administer and execute management, enforcement, and ecological monitoring workplans.

Several entities supporting and managing the reserve are also piloting mechanisms to increase income in communities bordering the reserves and to fund the reserve’s ongoing management. For example, outside Laohegou Reserve, the Paradise Foundation has set up a system in which they sell the community’s eco-friendly agricultural products and honey wine to high-end markets. Revenues from these sales augment community income and reduce the pressure from local residents who want to hunt and forage within the reserve. The Paradise Foundation and others are also exploring the potential for limited ecotourism into the reserves, as well as online fundraising for individual projects. Finally, project managers are also optimistic that China’s growing philanthropic sector will take interest and support these efforts. It remains to be seen whether these techniques will yield profits that are widely dispersed through the communities near the reserve or provide consistent, long-term funding needed for management activities.

The conservancy’s goal is to create 10 land trust reserves in China by 2020 with partners, each employing a slightly different model to demonstrate the flexibility of this approach, such as leasing land and turning it into a reserve, like in Sichuan Province, or assuming management responsibilities of an existing reserve.

Beyond Laohegou, the Conservancy and its partners are also exploring other models to demonstrate the flexibility of this approach, such as civil societies assuming complete or partial management responsibilities of an existing reserve. To date, four land trust reserves, including Laohegou, have been created around the country in partnership with various local entities, and interest continues to grow.

Borrowing the idea of the Land Trust Alliance in the United States, the Paradise Foundation and TNC China aligned 11 other international and domestic environmental NGOs to launch the China Civic Land Conservation Alliance in 2017, aiming to catalyze the “China land trust movement” by providing a platform for communications, funding, standards, policies, and capacity building. The long-term vision of the Alliance is to collaboratively protect 1 percent of China’s terrestrial land by civic and private organizations and individuals.

“The Conservancy will soon enter its twentieth year in China,” says Jin Tong. “We’ve completed a lot of work on the ground that draws on our science-based approach and international expertise to find viable solutions to China’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as the sponge city pilot project and the land trust reserves. In collaboration with PLC, we could amplify the success of demonstration projects to make larger-scale impacts and create enabling conditions to trigger systematic changes through research on China’s conservation strategies, policy, and finance,” she says.

 


 

James N. Levitt is the manager of land conservation programs at the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy and director of the Program on Conservation Innovation at the Harvard Forest of Harvard University. Emily Myron is project manager of the International Land Conservation Network at the Lincoln Institute.

Photograph: Oktay Ortakcioglu

 


 

References

Bradsher, Keith. 2017. “China’s Electric Car Push Lures Global Auto Giants, Despite Risks.” New York Times, September 10. www.nytimes.com/2017/09/10/business/china-electric-cars.html.

Demographia. 2017. Demographia World Urban Areas, Thirteenth Annual Edition. Belleville, IL: Demographia, April. www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf.

Fialka, John. 2016. “China Will Start the World’s Largest Carbon Trading Market.” Scientific American, May 16. www.scientificamerican.com/article/china-will-start-the-world-s-largest-carbon-trading-market/.

Global Carbon Project. 2016. “Global Carbon Atlas: CO2 Emissions.” www.globalcarbonatlas.org/en/CO2-emissions.

ILCN (International Land Conservation Network). 2017. “Locations.” www.landconservationnetwork.org/locations

Leach, Anna. 2016. “Soak It Up: China’s Ambitious Plan to Solve Urban Flooding with ‘Sponge Cities.’” Guardian, October 3. www.theguardian.com/public-leaders-network/2016/oct/03/china-government-solve-urban-planning-flooding-sponge-cities.

Myers, Joe. 2016. “You Knew China’s Cities Were Growing, but the Real Numbers Are Stunning.” Geneva, Switzerland: World Economic Forum, June 20. www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/06/china-cities-growing-numbers-are-stunning.

UNDP-WCMC (United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre). 2014.“Mapping the World’s Special Places.” www.unep-wcmc.org/featured-projects/mapping-the-worlds-special-places.

Xiang, Bo, ed. 2017. “Chinese Vice Premier Stresses Green Development.” XinhuaNet, September 8. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-09/08/c_136595063.htm.

Xinhua. 2013. “Rainstorms Affect 508,000 in SW China.” China Daily, July 10. http://africa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2013-07/10/content_16758256.htm.

World Bank. 2017. “World Bank Open Data.” Accessed September 2017. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=CN.

Zhu, Lingqing. 2017. “China to Launch Carbon Emissions Market this Year.” China Daily, August 16. www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2017-08/16/content_30686774.htm.

ILCN 2018 Global Congress, Santiago, Chile

January 24, 2018 - January 26, 2018

Santiago, Chile

Free, offered in English

The 2018 Global Congress will build upon the momentum, conversations, collaborations, and relationships that have emerged over the past several years, including at the First Congress of the ILCN, held in Berlin, Germany in October 2015 and at the Workshop on Emerging Innovations in Conservation Finance, held in Santiago in September 2016.

The Congress will explore a range of topics, focused on how attendees may take specific actions in their home countries to advance private land conservation, as well as the challenges and opportunities ahead for private land conservation. In addition, the Congress will include a field trip that features several important Chilean conservation stories, allowing hosts to share their successes and participants to build relationships in an informal atmosphere.

The ILCN is actively soliciting workshop presentations and panels. Please see the call for presentations below. Submissions must be received by July 21, 2017.


Details

Date
January 24, 2018 - January 26, 2018
Registration Period
January 26, 2018 - January 26, 2018
Location
Hotel Noi Vitacura
Santiago, Chile
Language
English
Registration Fee
Free
Cost
Free

Keywords

Adaptation, Climate Mitigation, Conservation, Conservation Easements, Easements, Environment, Environmental Management, Environmental Planning, Land Trusts, Water

Ballot Box Conservation: How citizens are mobilizing to protect natural resources

May 10, 2017 | 12:00 p.m. - 1:30 p.m.

Cambridge, MA United States

Free, offered in English

Watch the Recording


In an era of tightly constrained U.S. federal budgets, state and local funding for land conservation is of critical significance. David Hartwell spearheaded one of the largest land conservation ballot initiatives in U.S. history, which amended the Minnesota state constitution in 2006 to provide $6 billion for land and natural resources conservation over 25 years through a sales tax increase. He will tell the story of the campaign to pass the ballot initiative, highlighting the practical and policy challenges facing private, non-profit and public sector leaders who would undertake similar initiatives, and describe the initiative’s impact over the past decade.

Hartwell will be joined by James Levitt, manager of land conservation programs at the Lincoln Institute and director of the Program on Conservation Innovation at the Harvard Forest, Harvard University. Levitt will describe the role of ballot initiatives in conservation finance in the United States, drawing on data from LandVote, the premier resource for information on conservation ballot initiatives in the United States, a joint effort of the Trust for Public Land and the Land Trust Alliance.

A written account of the initiative will also be distributed as a Lincoln Institute Working Paper.

Speakers:

David Hartwell is the 2016-2017 Kingsbury Browne Fellow at the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, and the winner of the Kingsbury Browne Conservation Leadership Award from the Land Trust Alliance. He was a leader in a seven-year campaign to pass the Clean Water, Land and Legacy Amendment, a 2008 initiative that will fund conservation projects through 2034 through an enhanced sales tax of three-eighths of one percent. The amendment will generate an estimated $7.5 billion for conservation, arts and cultural preservation and parks and trails. From 2010 to 2013 alone, it funded some 65 projects related to land acquisition, restoration and conservation in Minnesota. Hartwell is the founder and former president of Bellcomb, Inc. He serves as president of the board for the Belwin Conservancy, a 1,350-acre sanctuary in Afton, Minn., and on the boards of National Audubon Society, Children & Nature Network, Island Conservation, Conservation Minnesota, Wildlife Land Trust and the Lessard Sams Outdoor Heritage Council as well as a number of private company boards. He is a former member of the Land Trust Alliance board.

Jim Levitt is the manager of land conservation programs in the Department of Planning and Urban Form at the Lincoln Institute, and director of the program on conservation innovation at the Harvard Forest, Harvard University, in Petersham, Massachusetts. In addition, he holds ongoing fellowships at the Harvard Kennedy School and at Highstead, a non-profit organization advancing land conservation in New England. Levitt focuses on landmark innovations in the field of land and biodiversity conservation (both present-day and historic) that are characterized by five traits: novelty and creativity in conception; strategic significance; measurable effectiveness; international transferability; and the ability to endure. Levitt has written and edited dozens of articles and four books on land and biodiversity conservation. He has lectured widely on the topic in venues ranging from Santiago, Chile, to Beijing, China, and Stockholm, Sweden. Among his current efforts, Levitt plays an instrumental role in the effort to organize the International Land Conservation Network (ILCN), whose mission is to connect organizations around the world that are accelerating voluntary private and civic sector action to protect and steward land and water resources. Levitt is a graduate of Yale College and the Yale School of Management (Yale SOM). He was recently named a Donaldson Fellow by Yale SOM for career achievements that “exemplify the mission of the School.”


Details

Date
May 10, 2017
Time
12:00 p.m. - 1:30 p.m.
Registration Period
April 24, 2017 - May 10, 2017
Location
Lincoln Institute of Land Policy
113 Brattle St.
Cambridge, MA United States
Language
English
Registration Fee
Free
Cost
Free

Keywords

Conservation

La estrella del sur

Chile y el futuro del financiamiento de la conservación
Por Tony Hiss, March 16, 2017

Del 27 al 29 de septiembre de 2016, la Red Internacional de Conservación de Suelo (ILCN, por su sigla en inglés), un proyecto del Instituto Lincoln de Políticas de Suelo, patrocinó el “Taller sobre innovaciones emergentes en el financiamiento de conservación”, en Las Majadas de Pirque, cerca de Santiago de Chile. El taller atrajo a 63 participantes de ocho países para intercambiar opiniones sobre las herramientas y conceptos que pueden fortalecer las finanzas de conservación en el Hemisferio Occidental y más allá.

Las políticas, prácticas y casos de estudio discutidos en el taller abarcaron un amplio espectro de mecanismos de financiamiento innovadores para resolver los desafíos del desarrollo inmobiliario y el cambio climático. Entre otros, se trataron los siguientes temas: recuperación de plusvalías en América Latina; reestructuración de los mercados de seguros para aumentar la resiliencia de las ciudades y el financiamiento sostenible en casos de tormentas; incentivos financieros de conservación en la legislación chilena y estadounidense; mitigación compensatoria; redes de conservación orientadas a las finanzas; el papel de la sociedad civil y las finanzas de conservación en realizar el Acuerdo de París de 2015; el papel que los mercados de capital podrían jugar para combatir el cambio climático; y en particular el liderazgo global emergente de Chile en el área de conservación de suelo.

Los organizadores del taller agradecen sumamente las contribuciones productivas de todos los participantes, así como la colaboración de los socios de la conferencia: el Centro David Rockefeller para Estudios Latinoamericanos en la Universidad de Harvard; Fundación Robles de Cantillana; el Bosque de Harvard, Universidad de Harvard; Las Majadas de Pirque; Qué pasawww.landconservationnetwork.org.

A continuación se relata la experiencia del renombrado autor Tony Hiss en el taller y sus observaciones sobre los espectaculares recursos naturales e inspiradores esfuerzos de conservación de Chile.

Emily Myron, Directora del proyecto, ILCN

 

Para los conservacionistas de América del Norte, incluso una visita relámpago a Chile puede sentirse como un estímulo del futuro, un encuentro con un potente rayo de luz que brilla hacia el norte. Esto ocurre gracias a la naturaleza del lugar, un escaparate de paisajes espectaculares organizados cuidadosamente en un montón alto y apretado a lo largo del país, una angosta franja de tierra entre el océano Pacífico y la cordillera de los Andes. También tiene que ver con los habitantes de este país y con lo que tanto grupos como particulares han estado haciendo en los últimos cinco siglos y medio para proteger estos paisajes indispensables.

En una reunión a la que tuve oportunidad de asistir en la segunda mitad del año pasado en Las Majadas de Pirque (una especie de palacio de mazapán convertido en centro de convenciones en las afueras de Santiago), quedó en claro que una asociación entre América del Norte y América del Sur, que vio sus inicios a lo largo de varias décadas de colaboración silenciosa entre conservacionistas de los Estados Unidos y de Chile, ya está creando una especie de campo de fuerza hemisférico en cuestiones relacionadas con la conservación. Como resultado, sentimos al otro pilar de esta asociación, Chile (un país cuyo nombre significa, según una derivación, “fin de la tierra”), como un colega cercano, aunque se encuentre a más de diez horas de viaje en avión desde la Ciudad de Nueva York.

Con el fin de seguir afianzando esta afinidad, se realizó este evento, denominado “Taller sobre innovaciones emergentes en el financiamiento de la conservación” y organizado por la Red Internacional de Conservación del Suelo (ILCN, por su sigla en inglés) del Instituto Lincoln, que reunió a decenas de conservacionistas, funcionarios e inversores de ambos países, con una mayor representación del hemisferio occidental, para pensar sobre un desafío cada vez más urgente: dada la rapidez con la que la biosfera se está calentando y cambiando, los gobiernos, por sí solos, no pueden financiar los billones de dólares necesarios para procurar y luego cuidar de aquellos lugares que deben perdurar para siempre con el fin de resguardar la biodiversidad.

A pesar de la gravedad del problema, cuando dos países que apoyan sólidamente la conservación —y más cuando cada uno de ellos tiene mucho que conservar— se unen para buscar nuevas soluciones, es un gran salto hacia adelante. Según Hari Balasubramanian, consultor canadiense cuyo enfoque es el valor de negocios de la conservación, la conferencia de tres días fue “¡Muy oportuna! Los conservacionistas siempre han estado en el negocio de la perpetuidad. Y ahora necesitamos trabajar aún más en lo que respecta al financiamiento y la administración de los suelos protegidos, para que perduren”.

Laura Johnson, directora de la ILCN, coincide: “La idea de que podemos desarrollar nuevas herramientas para financiar grandes visiones para la conservación es relativamente nueva. ¿Podemos encontrar los recursos que necesitamos para enfrentar el abrumador desafío de generar un trabajo de conservación del suelo y del agua que perdure en el tiempo? El objetivo de la conferencia fue ayudar a responder a esa pregunta”.

La naturaleza especial de Chile

Desde luego, no todos los visitantes tienen la oportunidad de quedarse en un entorno tan elegante como Las Majadas, pero es fácil para un norteamericano sentirse como en casa en Chile, y no sólo por la abundancia de librerías que hay en Santiago o los resplandecientes rascacielos del centro financiero de la ciudad, al que se ha apodado “Sanhattan”. La sucesión de paisajes y climas que se da en el campo hace eco extrañamente de los que encontramos en nuestra costa del Pacífico de los EE. UU., al oeste de las Sierras —aunque la relación entre ambos países, en lugar de ser una imagen en espejo uno del otro, se parece más al reflejo invertido que veríamos si estuviéramos de pie a la orilla de un lago: los desiertos al norte; los glaciares y fiordos patagónicos bien al sur; y, en el medio, una región mediterránea soleada, similar a la del centro y sur de California, y una región de bosques templados brumosos, como las de Oregon o Washington). Nuestro otoño es su primavera. En cuanto a su longitud, Chile es tan grande como la distancia que existe entre Nueva York y San Francisco, aunque, respecto de su ancho, sus fronteras este y oeste —el océano Pacífico y la escarpada línea de la cordillera de los Andes— los siempre están más cerca entre sí que la distancia que existe entre Manhattan y Albany, Nueva York.

Aun así, los paisajes de Chile que tienen sus “pares” en los EE. UU. pueden darnos una lección de humildad a los norteamericanos: Chile no sólo tiene desiertos, sino el desierto más seco del mundo, el Atacama, conocido como “Marte en la Tierra”, con cielos nocturnos despejados que lo convertirán en la primera “reserva de luz de estrellas” del hemisferio occidental. En un año, este paraíso del astrónomo profesional albergará el 70 por ciento de los telescopios más grandes del mundo: para complementar al VLT (telescopio muy grande) actualmente en uso, se está construyendo un ELT (telescopio extremadamente grande) del tamaño de un estadio de fútbol, mientras se habla de la posibilidad de construir un OWL (telescopio descomunalmente grande) que, algún día, tal vez “revolucione nuestra percepción del universo, tal como lo hizo el telescopio de Galileo”, según afirman desde el Observatorio del Sur de Europa.

Hacia el sur, en la región de bosques templados de Valdivia, brumosa, fría y con densos sotobosques de helecho y bambú (nuestra “jungla fría, fragante, silenciosa, enredada”, tal como la llamó Pablo Neruda, el poeta chileno ganador del premio Nobel), muchos de los árboles se encuentran entre los más añejos del mundo. Tal como lo expresó un visitante asombrado, Ken Wilcox, autor de Chile’s Native Forests: A Conservation Legacy (“Los bosques nativos de Chile: Un legado de conservación”): “En la actualidad, la oportunidad de caminar durante días entre cosas vivientes tan antiguas como la esfinge sólo resulta posible en Chile”.

El monarca de estos bosques de especies siempreverdes con aires de catedral es el alerce, un primo más  desgreñado y un poco menos alto que la secuoya gigante de América del Norte, aunque mucho más longevo. Aun más impresionante es la araucaria (o “rompecabezas de los monos”), de 80 metros de altura, que, al igual que el alerce, se erige como una torre por sobre el follaje del bosque que la rodea: su tronco larguirucho y totalmente recto se ve coronado por una intrincada maraña formada por una densa superposición de ramas, cubiertas completamente de hojas puntiagudas y espinosas. Para dar una idea de su forma, pensemos en un paraguas con muchísimas varillas que se dio vuelta debido a una tormenta. “Para un mono, sería un verdadero rompecabezas trepar este árbol”, observó Charles Austin, abogado de la época victoriana, aunque sería más acertado llamar a este árbol “rompecabezas de los dinosaurios”, ya que en Chile no hay monos y las hojas espinosas de la araucaria (que han sido así desde eras inmemoriales) evolucionaron con el fin de repeler a los gigantescos reptiles herbívoros que deambulaban por Gondwana, el antiguo supercontinente del hemisferio sur que comenzó a fragmentarse hace unos 180 millones de años.

Finalmente, tenemos a la Patagonia. Este territorio en el extremo sur de Chile, que ocupa un tercio del país y no se encuentra muy poblado, es un lugar de inmensidades insuperables, al que se ha dado en llamar una “geografía extrema”, donde todo tiene dimensiones extraordinarias y es realmente imponente: picos, glaciares, islas, fiordos, bosques. En las fotografías, los paisajes parecen haber sido retocados y dejan incluso a los mejores escritores sin palabras para poder describirlos. El icónico logo de la línea de indumentaria Patagonia —que, alguna vez, pensé que representaba una fantasiosa mezcla paradisíaca de imaginarios picos dentados recortados sobre franjas de nubes curiosamente anaranjadas y púrpuras— es, para ser exactos, un esbozo muy simplificado, sutil y tenue del verdadero paisaje. En realidad, las montañas, las nubes y la luz son bastante reales. Y este gráfico ni siquiera llega a representar los 13.000 kilómetros cuadrados del campo de hielo sur de la Patagonia, que se encuentra justo al lado de la cordillera (un campo de hielo es a un glaciar lo que un párrafo es a una palabra), ni lo que Gregory Crouch, montañista y autor de Enduring Patagonia (“Sobrevivir a la Patagonia”) describe como “el viento, un viento en ráfagas, un viento incesante e interminable”. Es un paisaje aún tan desconocido que, a lo largo de 80 kilómetros hacia el sur, todavía debe establecerse la frontera entre Chile y Argentina. Muchos visitantes que llegan a esta región sienten como si hubieran regresado a una época anterior al comienzo de todas las cosas.

Las amenazas al paisaje

Este país extraordinario fue el telón de fondo ideal para generar energía en nuestro salón de conferencias en Las Majadas. La pasión que estos paisajes extravagantes ha evocado en los chilenos es contagiosa y persistente, y tiene efectos de transformación. James N. Levitt, organizador de la conferencia y administrador de programas de conservación del suelo del Instituto Lincoln, resumió el sentir que todos teníamos cuando expresó que Chile “está destinada a convertirse en uno de los más importantes puntos focales ecológicos del mundo”.

De más está decir que esta es una historia con corrientes que se superponen. Para la minería —la industria más poderosa del país y un pilar de su economía nacional— el paisaje siempre ha sido una cáscara, algo que hay que pelar para que se revele lo que verdaderamente tiene valor en su interior: el cobre. Chile exporta un tercio de todo el cobre del mundo y depende en gran manera de los once mil millones de dólares anuales que este metal genera para el gobierno. Desde la época colonial española, lo que está bajo tierra siempre ha superado a lo que está sobre el suelo. Tal como lo expresó Neruda: “Quien no conoce el bosque chileno, no conoce este planeta”. No obstante, hasta hace muy poco, un bosque se talaba si impedía el desarrollo de una mina. No fue sino hasta esta última década que un tribunal chileno dictaminó que una ladera mediterránea cubierta de árboles ubicada no lejos de Santiago tiene mucho más valor tal como está que si se la excava. Esta área, protegida desde 2013, se denomina hoy en día Santuario de la Naturaleza de San Juan de Piche. Durante una visita que realizamos a este lugar, tuvimos la oportunidad de estrujar una hoja, de perfume penetrante y limpio, proveniente de un peumo, un árbol siempreverde de 80 metros de altura con una corteza gris agrietada, lo que nos permitió participar en una experiencia capturada de forma inolvidable por Neruda:

Quebré una hoja enlosada de matorral: un dulce aroma de los bordes cortados me tocó como un ala profunda que volara desde la tierra, desde lejos, desde nunca. . . .  Pensé cómo eres toda mi tierra: mi bandera debe tener aroma de peumo al desplegarse, un olor de fronteras que de pronto entran en ti con toda la patria en su corriente.

Al mismo tiempo, los ambientalistas han sido parte del proceso de sanidad nacional en un país que todavía hoy está emergiendo de la sombra de lo que denominan “un 9/11 diferente”, es decir, el 11 de septiembre de 1973, el día en que los militares chilenos derrocaron al gobierno socialista elegido democráticamente y establecieron una dictadura brutal que duró 17 años. Heraldo Muñoz, el actual ministro de relaciones exteriores del país, escribió que, para muchos, fue “una terrible pérdida de la inocencia. Creíamos que nuestro país era diferente del resto de América Latina y que no caería preso de los horrores de la dictadura”. Las cuestiones relacionadas con la conservación fueron una de las maneras que tuvo el país para comenzar a ponerse en orden de forma pacífica: las demostraciones generalizadas de 1976 dieron como resultado la proclamación del alerce como monumento nacional. “Los militares nos llamaban ‘sandías’, es decir, verdes por fuera y rojos por dentro”, contó Rafael Asenjo, un veterano de aquellos días, en nuestra reunión. Asenjo es, actualmente, el presidente del Tribunal Ambiental de Santiago, y explica: “Pero si íbamos a los tribunales, a los jueces les costaba dictar sentencia en contra nuestra, ya que éramos apolíticos”. Los militares, que abogaban por ciertas reformas en pro del libre mercado, sin querer dieron lugar a nuevos conservacionistas al subsidiar a los propietarios de bosques añejos de crecimiento lento para talar cientos de miles de hectáreas de estos árboles —que, según Rick Klein, fundador de Ancient Forest International, son verdaderos depósitos de la información genética más antigua sobre el agua— y reemplazarlos por monocultivos de pinos importados de América del Norte. Estos árboles de reemplazo crecen tan rápido que están listos para transformarse en pulpa de madera de exportación en sólo siete años. A principios de la década de 1980, el slogan de moda era: “La madera es el nuevo cobre”.

Los éxitos más importantes en cuanto a la conservación comenzaron a darse a partir de la restauración de la democracia en 1990, y continúan hasta el día de hoy. Por una feliz coincidencia, en el vuelo hacia Santiago, me senté al lado del ministro de relaciones exteriores Muñoz, que ahora es el defensor de la protección marina en el país (Muñoz fue uno de los pocos afortunados en salir con vida de la dictadura: de la única tortura que sufrió, le quedó una sola cicatriz, un dedo que nunca sanó correctamente). Los chilenos se consideran a sí mismos un “país tricontinental”, reclaman derechos sobre la Antártida y soberanía sobre las Islas Desventuradas (a dos días de viaje en bote hacia el oeste desde tierra firme) y sobre la Isla de Pascua (otros cinco días más de viaje). En 2015, Chile creó una reserva marina de protección total del tamaño de Italia alrededor de las Islas Desventuradas. Según me informó Muñoz, hoy en día, la pesca ilegal es la tercera actividad delictiva más rentable del mundo (después del narcotráfico y la venta ilegal de armas). Un Área Marina Protegida (AMP) de mayores dimensiones (720.000 kilómetros cuadrados) que se está desarrollando alrededor de la Isla de Pascua junto con la comunidad polinesia local se convertirá en una de las regiones protegidas más grandes del mundo. Los buzos profesionales que han comenzado a explorar las aguas de las Islas Desventuradas dicen que el área se asemejaría a una Patagonia de las profundidades: “Las paredes de peces de colores brillantes hacen que resulte casi imposible ver tu mano enfrente de tu rostro. Sólo cuando nos encontramos en lugares prístinos como este podemos entender cómo eran las cosas antes de que llegaran los humanos”.

Líder mundial en conservación

Los primeros protectores de este país excepcional fueron los mapuches, un pueblo originario de la región centro-sur de Chile y del sudoeste argentino. Estos sagaces guerreros mantuvieron a raya, durante 400 años, a tres ejércitos sucesivos —primero, a las fuerzas enviadas por los Incas; luego, a los españoles; y, finalmente, al nuevo gobierno chileno independiente— y concentraron su creciente población en el centro del país, al sur de los desiertos del norte. Gran parte de la Patagonia no tuvo asentamientos permanentes hasta el siglo XX; actualmente, el 85 por ciento de los chilenos todavía vive en el Valle Central, donde las tierras que se encuentran ubicadas entre las grandes ciudades como Santiago se dedican en forma intensiva a la agricultura. Los viñedos de antaño están creciendo en tamaño y en cantidad; de forma más reciente, se han sumado una serie de huertos de aguacate que se extienden pendiente arriba, tal como si fueran expansiones urbanas descontroladas (al pasar por estos lugares, les dimos el nombre de “condominios de aguacate”).

El 19 por ciento del suelo chileno ha sido designado parque público o reserva pública (compárese con el 14 por ciento de los EE. UU.), por lo que Chile es líder mundial en conservación. No obstante, el 85 por ciento de los parques nacionales y otras áreas protegidas de Chile se encuentra en el sur del país, mientras que sólo el 1 por ciento de la superpoblada región central posee este tipo de protección, aunque, por derecho propio, se considera un paisaje especial, ya que es una de las cinco regiones ecológicas ricas en especies y distintivamente mediterráneas del mundo. Si tenemos en cuenta que el 90 por ciento de todos los terrenos fuera del sistema de parques nacionales es de propiedad privada, las expectativas para la tarea conservacionista podrían parecer desalentadoras; sin embargo, esto señala el camino hacia el futuro, gracias a un cambio brillante y sin precedentes en las leyes del país.

El Derecho Real

Sólo unos meses antes de nuestra conferencia, y después de ocho años de persuasión y debates, el Congreso chileno sancionó por unanimidad la ley de Derecho Real de Conservación: una nueva clase de derecho de propiedad que, según recuerda Rafael Asenjo, se había considerado como “una idea descabellada”. Esta ley invita a los ciudadanos chilenos a participar en actividades de conservación mediante el establecimiento de Áreas Protegidas Privadas (APP) que ahora gozarán de la misma duración y situación legal que los parques públicos. Esta ley democratiza el negocio de la perpetuidad al hacer de la protección un acto voluntario y personal . . . y considerablemente menos costoso. “No necesitamos comprar todo el suelo para salvarlo”, explica William H. Whyte en The Last Landscape (El último paisaje), un resonante manifiesto escrito en 1968 sobre el espacio abierto, que señalaba hacia “el antiguo instrumento del derecho de servidumbre”. Desde los tiempos medievales, sostenía Whyte, la propiedad del suelo se ha entendido como un “conjunto de derechos” que permite a los propietarios de inmuebles extraer el derecho a desarrollar el terreno y luego, en forma separada, vender o donar dicho derecho a una agencia de parques públicos o a un grupo sin fines de lucro (denominado “fideicomiso de suelo”) por una suma menor que el precio de compra completo de la propiedad. En las décadas posteriores al llamado de Whyte, 10.000.000 de hectáreas del paisaje de los EE. UU. (una superficie casi tan grande como el estado de Virginia) se han sometido al derecho de servidumbre. Sin embargo, aunque la idea se ha diseminado por todo el mundo, esta solución no estaba disponible en Chile debido a que este país está regido por el derecho civil de tradición romana, tal como Italia o Suiza, a diferencia de los EE. UU., que es un país regido por el common law (o “derecho consuetudinario”).

El common law en los Estados Unidos y otros países de habla inglesa tuvo su origen en Inglaterra después de la conquista de los normandos, cuando el nuevo gobierno intentó coordinar las distintas costumbres regionales al otorgar a los jueces una considerable libertad para decidir qué tenían en común todas estas costumbres; así, los jueces pasaron a ser la fuente principal del derecho. En contraste, el resto de Europa se regía por leyes que habían sido establecidas para siempre, según se creía, por el emperador bizantino Justiniano en una compilación de derecho romano del siglo VI. Según el derecho civil, toda decisión de no construir sobre un terreno se considera una restricción al propósito principal de poseer una propiedad, a saber, que genere rentas para su propietario. No obstante, hace poco Jaime Ubilla, abogado de Santiago con experiencia internacional (posee un título de grado de la Universidad de Tokio, un doctorado de la Universidad de Edimburgo y habla chino mandarín), propuso que el derecho real de conservación es coherente con esta concepción ancestral, ya que la biología conservacionista moderna ha demostrado que el suelo sin desarrollar posee un valor en constante aumento cuando se lo mantiene en su estado natural. Por lo tanto, no construir sobre un terreno, en lugar de limitar a sus propietarios, les otorga vía libre para amasar un capital natural. El resultado es una ley y un fundamento jurídico que otros países de derecho civil ahora pueden adoptar.

En Chile, la expectativa es que una de las primeras áreas que se vean beneficiadas por el derecho real sea el Santuario de la Naturaleza de San Juan de Piche, cuyos propietarios se endeudaron a fin de desafiar a los intereses mineros ante los tribunales. Además, este acuerdo podría coincidir oportunamente con otro desarrollo sin precedentes en el ámbito de la conservación de suelo privado en Chile: la inminente donación, por parte de un único propietario, de un aporte gigantesco realizado de una sola vez al sistema de parques nacionales del país.

El proyecto de conservación “Tompkins Conservation”

Todo comenzó como una broma aventurera: en 1968, dos norteamericanos en una camioneta destartalada (quienes, más tarde, se llamaron a sí mismos “conquistadores de lo inútil”) recorrieron América del Sur durante seis meses, en los que buscaron experiencias únicas esquiando, surfeando y escalando, hasta que “se amigaron con la idea de ingresar a la fuerza laboral industrial”. Entre otras cosas, escalaron el monte Fitz Roy, que actualmente se encuentra en la marca Patagonia. Los protagonistas fueron: Yvon Chouinard, quien, más tarde, fundó la empresa de indumentaria en 1973; y Douglas Tompkins, quien también se desempeñaba en la industria de la indumentaria, y había fundado y vendido The North Face para financiar el viaje y quien, al regresar a California, fundó Esprit, que vendió en 1989 para convertirse en lo que sus detractores llamaron un “barón de la ecología”. Tompkins se mudó a Chile y, en 1993, se casó con Kristine Tompkins, quien, hasta ese momento, había sido la gerente general de Chouinard en la empresa Patagonia. El matrimonio compró 810.000 hectáreas de terreno virgen en la Patagonia chilena y argentina de a cientos o miles de hectáreas por vez, lo que los convirtió en los mayores propietarios privados de tierras del mundo. El objetivo de los Tompkins era fundar una nueva marca, pero, esta vez, a perpetuidad. La estrategia: aportar sus tierras al sistema de parques nacionales de Chile a través de una serie de acuerdos, con lo que la establecieron, de a poco, como una fuerza irresistible, una “regla de oro” de lugares protegidos que Chile aún poseería en fideicomiso para el mundo unos 200 años después.

Lamentablemente, Doug Tompkins falleció hace poco más de un año en un extraño accidente de kayac. Por lo tanto, Kris Tompkins es ahora la encargada de completar este proyecto, que se anunciará durante este año, según lo informó en nuestra conferencia Hernán Mladinic, sociólogo y director ejecutivo de uno de los futuros parques nacionales y representante del equipo de Tompkins que está negociando los detalles finales con el gobierno chileno. Kris Tompkins donará sus últimas 405.000 hectáreas, la mayor donación de tierras de una sola vez que se haya realizado a un país. A su vez, el gobierno sumará 3.700.000 hectáreas de terrenos estatales, con lo que creará cinco nuevos parques nacionales y expandirá otros tres parques ya existentes. Todo al mismo tiempo. Un par de los nuevos parques han sido, hasta el momento, escaparates de la obra de Tompkins: el Parque Pumalín, que alberga un 25 por ciento de los alerces que todavía permanecen de pie sin haber sido talados en el país; y el Parque Patagonia, el mayor proyecto de restauración de praderas en el mundo, junto con sus especies clave, tales como el puma y el cóndor andino, un proyecto que, en palabras de Kris Tompkins, podrá recordarle a la gente “cómo solía ser el mundo en todos lados y cómo podría ser de nuevo”.

¿Cómo se ve la conservación desde una perspectiva del siglo XXIII? En una charla atípicamente honesta que dio en la Universidad de Yale durante la primavera pasada, Kris Tompkins explicó que tanto ella como su esposo siempre pensaron a gran escala. “Para nosotros, el apalancamiento lo es todo: cada vez que tenemos una operación en manos, vemos las posibilidades de expansión y pensamos, ¿cuál es el apuro para el apalancamiento?”. Lo pensaron seriamente con el fin de plantar una visión aún más abarcadora. “Si tenemos en cuenta que estamos gastando unos cientos de millones de dólares en proteger la tierra, queremos estar seguros de que nuestra inversión está lo más protegida posible. No voy a trabajar tanto si el proyecto solamente va a durar de 25 a 50 años”.

Los Tompkins siempre se consideraron a sí mismos como desarrolladores, aunque según una trayectoria diferente. Esto significa trabajar entre las personas y con las personas, mostrándoles que los parques son un negocio competitivo (“más rentable que el cobre”, como lo afirma Mladinic), y, al mismo tiempo, hacer algo interno que sólo produce efectos en forma gradual. Tal como señala Kris Tompkins: “Cuando se trata de paisajes de grandes dimensiones, lo primero que debes hacer antes de irte del lugar o morir es conseguirlo, para que la misma ciudadanía se enamore del paisaje y, así, se convierta en protectora de su sistema de parques nacionales. Para lograrlo, probablemente esto lleve una generación o una generación y media. Un parque es una enorme fábrica de dinero, pero, lo que es más importante, se convierte en un motivo de orgullo. Entonces, si llega alguna cabeza hueca, lo cual ocurre muy a menudo, e intenta ocupar los bordes de, por ejemplo, el Parque Nacional Olímpico, la gente se enfurecerá”.

El costo de salvar el paraíso

Para casi todas las especies, el mundo natural es un tipo de casa a remodelar, en lugar de ser un hogar soñado listo para habitar: es un depósito de materia prima que se puede allanar y remodelar. Así, tenemos nidos de aves y diques de castores, modificaciones ante el entorno que facilitan la vida y aumentan las probabilidades de sobrevivir. Los antropólogos médicos denominan a estas infraestructuras específicas a cada especie ipsefacts, es decir, “cosas que hacen por sí mismos”. Este concepto va más allá del ámbito de los artefactos (es decir, los cambios que los humanos hacen al entorno), ya que lo que hacemos es un impulso compartido: la necesidad de procurar el propio techo es universal e inevitable. No obstante, entretejer ramitas y plumas en forma de un pequeño recipiente redondo sin mucha profundidad tiene un efecto mínimo en el entorno, e, incluso, los diques de los castores no sólo son perjudiciales sino, a la vez, productivos, ya que generan grandes humedales, corriente arriba y corriente abajo, que benefician a muchas más especies de las que perjudican, mientras que nuestra remodelación del mundo ha traído condiciones de vida edénicas para muchos, pero, simultáneamente, ha desterrado a muchas otras especies e, incluso, ha llegado a destruir el paraíso.

Uno de los temas más espinosos y críticos en la conferencia surgió durante las charlas acerca de pagar por la perpetuidad. Los gobiernos y los donantes privados han sido, tradicionalmente, los pilares de la conservación del suelo, pero se han detenido un poco desde la recesión mundial de 2008. El siguiente paso debe ser lograr que la comunidad de negocios e inversiones se involucre más en el tema. Este sector controla de 16 a 18 billones de dólares en ahorros globales; así, según nos explicó David Boghossian, director gerente de una firma de inversiones con responsabilidad social cuya sede se encuentra en Massachusetts, esto los convierte en “la fuerza más potente de cambio que tenemos a disposición”. Esto representa 30 veces más de lo que podrían donar los generosos filántropos de todo el mundo, cuyos aportes, comparativamente, parecerían un simple “resto decimal”.

Boghossian explicó esta cuestión con lujo de detalles en una presentación titulada “Cómo hacer que las inversiones de impacto sean aburridas”. El término “inversiones de impacto”, que se acuñó hace sólo una década, significa esperar un buen rendimiento financiero y, a la vez, hacer algo bueno por el mundo. Es una tendencia creciente, pero todavía está muy lejos de ser algo aburrido o confiable, lo cual es, según Boghossian, lo que se espera algún día de las inversiones de impacto, es decir, que sean operaciones diarias tan seguras y cómodas como abrir una cuenta bancaria.

Lo espinoso del asunto tiene que ver con el “costo de oportunidad”, es decir, la probabilidad de que un inversor pueda ganar dinero al ejercer un impacto negativo en el paisaje, ya que, en este sentido, los negocios se han establecido tradicionalmente sobre una base de tipo semi-ipsefactual. En condiciones de negocios a las que estamos acostumbrados, ningún daño que se ocasione al medioambiente en forma inadvertida afectará el resultado final. Es un factor externo, considerado como una compensación aceptable: el riesgo lo corre el planeta, no el inversor. En este sentido, la humanidad ha actuado como las demás especies, como si los paisajes que manipulamos fueran inextinguibles como el sol que nos alumbra, como si fueran inalterables como la gravedad.

Sin embargo, hace treinta años comenzamos a darnos cuenta de que el mundo sólo tiene una provisión finita de materia prima, por lo que la sostenibilidad se convirtió en el lema. Hace diez años, cuando el cambio climático se convirtió en algo que la gente podía notar a simple vista, nos percatamos de que, mucho antes de que se acaben las reservas de petróleo y de carbón, el uso indiscriminado de estos recursos calentará el planeta de tal manera que podría poner en peligro todas las cosas: “los paisajes, las fuentes de agua y los cielos que nos brindan el fundamento común”, concluye Levitt.

Hasta hoy, la relación entre los conservacionistas y la comunidad de negocios siempre ha parecido una especie de eterno y silencioso juego de ajedrez. Los negocios hacen uso de ciertos terrenos antes de que los conservacionistas puedan contraatacar poniendo piezas en los flancos fuera de los límites y retirando al contrincante fuera del juego. No obstante, ahora no sólo corren riesgo los jugadores, sino también el lugar donde se juega. Los factores externos están penetrando en el interior, por lo que la comunidad de negocios deberá reforzar las acciones conservacionistas aun si sólo fuera para proteger sus propios intereses.

Y esto es lo que experimentamos en la conferencia: un cambio en la naturaleza de la realidad, una realineación del enfoque, que fue mucho más que solamente un cambio en las bases del financiamiento de la conservación.

Por último, la rosa detrás de la espina: si se requiere de todo un pueblo para educar a un niño (como bien lo expresa un proverbio africano), tal vez se necesite de todo un hemisferio para encauzar el medioambiente, mediante el trabajo conjunto de líderes de negocios y conservacionistas con el fin de salvar el planeta.

 

Tony Hiss fue escritor de planta del New Yorker durante más de 30 años. En la actualidad, es un académico visitante en la Universidad de Nueva York. Es autor de 13 libros, entre los que se cuentan The Experience of Place (La experiencia del lugar) y el más reciente, In Motion: The Experience of Travel (En movimiento: La experiencia de viajar).

Fotografía: BABAK TAFRESHI/National Geographic Creative

South Star

Chile and the Future of Conservation Finance
By Tony Hiss, February 15, 2017

On September 27 to 29, 2016, the International Land Conservation Network (ILCN), a project of the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, hosted the “Workshop on Emerging Innovations in Conservation Finance” at Las Majadas de Pirque, near Santiago, Chile. The workshop drew 63 participants from eight counties, who came together to discuss tools and concepts that are strengthening conservation finance in the Western Hemisphere and beyond.

The policies, practices, and case studies discussed at the workshop represented a broad spectrum of innovative financing mechanisms to address challenges posed by development and climate change. Topics included value capture in Latin America; the restructuring of insurance markets to make cities more resilient and financially sustainable in the face of intensified storm events; financial incentives for conservation as written into Chilean and U.S. law; compensatory mitigation; conservation finance-oriented networks; the role of civil society and conservation finance in carrying out the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement; the potential role that capital markets might play in addressing climate change; and, particularly, Chile’s emerging global leadership in land conservation.

The workshop organizers greatly appreciate the productive contributions of all participants and the support of the many partners who made the workshop possible: the David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies at Harvard University; Fundación Robles de Cantillana; the Harvard Forest, Harvard University; Las Majadas de Pirque; Qué Pasawww.landconservationnetwork.org.

Below follows renowned author Tony Hiss’s experience at the workshop and observations of Chile’s stunning natural resources and inspiring conservation efforts. 

Emily Myron, Project Manager, ILCN

 

For North American conservationists, even a whirlwind visit to Chile can feel like encouragement from the future—an encounter with a strong beam of light shining northward. That’s thanks to the nature of the place, a showcase of spectacular landscapes neatly arranged in a tall, tight stack along the country’s narrow ribbon of land between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes Mountains. Equally it has to do with the people in that country and what groups and individuals have been doing during five-and-a-half centuries to protect these indispensable landscapes.

At a meeting I got to attend last fall at Las Majadas de Pirque, a kind of marzipan palace-turned-conference center outside Santiago, it became clear that a North and South American partnership, which got its start during several decades of quiet collaborations among conservationists in the United States and Chile, is already creating a sort of hemispheric force field of conservation concern. As a result, the partnership’s co-anchor, Chile, a country whose name according to one derivation means “ends of the earth,” feels like a close colleague though it remains more than 10 hours away from New York City on a plane.

Building on this affinity, the meeting—called the “Workshop on Emerging Innovations in Conservation Finance” and hosted by the Lincoln Institute’s International Land Conservation Network (ILCN)—gathered dozens of conservationists, officials, and investors from both countries, with further representation from around the Western Hemisphere, to think through an increasingly urgent challenge: Given how fast the biosphere is warming and changing, governments alone can’t afford the trillions of dollars needed to secure and then care for the places that have to be held onto for all time to save biodiversity. 

Despite the severity of the problem, it’s a huge jump forward when two countries that strongly support conservation—and each with so much worthy of conserving—team up to find new solutions. “What good timing,” Hari Balasubramanian, a Canadian consultant who thinks about the business value of conservation, said of the three-day conference. “Conservationists have always been in the perpetuity business. And now we need to work even harder at financing and managing protected lands so they will last.” 

Laura Johnson, director of the ILCN, concurred: “The idea that we can develop new tools for financing big visions for conservation is still relatively recent. Can we find the resources needed to meet the daunting challenge of creating lasting land and water conservation? The conference was intended to help answer that question.”

Chile’s Special Nature

Of course, not every visitor gets to stay in such an elegant setting as Las Majadas, but it’s easy for North Americans to feel at home in Chile—and not just because of the abundance of bookstores in Santiago or the gleaming high-rises in the city’s financial center, nicknamed “Sanhattan.” The countryside’s succession of landscapes and climates eerily echo those along our own Pacific coast west of the Sierras—though rather than being mirror images of each other, the relationship between the two countries is more like the upside-down reflection you’d see if you were standing on the edge of a lake: with deserts in the north, Patagonian glaciers and fjords far in the south, and in between a sunny Mediterranean area, like that of central and southern California, and a foggy temperate rainforest region, like in Oregon or Washington. Our fall is their spring. And Chile is as long as the distance from New York to San Francisco, but its western and eastern boundaries—the Pacific and the ridge line of the Andes—are always closer than the distance between Manhattan and Albany, New York.

Yet Chile’s “sister landscapes” can still be humbling to North Americans: Chile doesn’t just have deserts, it has the world’s driest desert—the Atacama, known as Mars on Earth, with clear night skies that will make it the first “starlight reserve” in the Western Hemisphere. Within a year, this professional astronomer’s paradise will be home to 70 percent of the world’s great telescopes: an ELT (Extremely Large Telescope) the size of a football stadium now under construction will supplement an existing VLT (Very Large Telescope), amid talk of an OWL (an Overwhelmingly Large Telescope) that could someday, according to the European Southern Observatory, “revolutionize our perception of the universe as much as Galileo’s telescope did.”

In the more southerly Valdivian temperate rainforest region, foggy and chilly and with dense understories of ferns and bamboos (our “cold jungle,” as Pablo Neruda, the Nobel Prize-winning Chilean poet, called it, “fragrant, silent, tangled”), many of the trees are among the world’s most ancient. “Today,” said one awed visitor (Ken Wilcox, author of Chile’s Native Forests: A Conservation Legacy), “the opportunity to walk for days among living things as old as the Sphinx is possible only in Chile.” 

The monarch of these cathedral-like forests of evergreens—siempreverdes, in Spanish—is the alerce, a shaggier, slightly shorter but much longer-lived cousin of the North American giant sequoia. Even more striking is the 260-foot-tall monkey puzzle tree, which like the alerce towers over the surrounding forest canopy, where its dead-straight, spindly trunk is topped by an intricately snarled crown of thickly overlapping branches entirely covered with sharp, prickly leaves. Think of an umbrella with too many ribs blown inside out by a thunderstorm. “It would puzzle a monkey to climb that,” said Victorian lawyer Charles Austin—though it might be more accurate to call it a dinosaur puzzle tree since there are no monkeys in Chile, and the tree’s thorny leaves, unchanged over eons, evolved to repel the giant herbivore reptiles that roamed Gondwana, the ancient southern supercontinent that began to break up 180 million years ago.

Then there’s Patagonia. The sparsely populated southernmost third of Chile is a place of uncompromising immensities and what’s been called “extreme geography,” where everything is outsized and stunning—peaks, glaciers, islands, fjords, forests. The landscapes look retouched in photographs and leave even the best writers gasping for adequate descriptions. The iconic logo of the Patagonia clothing line—which I had once supposed to be a fanciful, Shangri-La concoction of jagged, imaginary peaks silhouetted against bands of unlikely-looking orange and purple horizontal clouds—is actually a rather oversimplified, understated, subdued sketch. In fact, the mountains, clouds, and light are all quite real. And the graphic doesn’t begin to convey the 5,000-square mile Southern Patagonian Ice Cap right next to the ridgeline (an ice cap is to a glacier as a paragraph is to a word), or what one mountaineer, Gregory Crouch, author of Enduring Patagonia, calls “the wind, the gusting wind, the ceaseless, ceaseless wind.” It’s a landscape still so unknown that for 50 miles to the south the border separating Chile and Argentina has yet to be established. Many visitors to the region sense a return to a time just after the beginning of things.

Threats to the Landscape

This extraordinary country was a fitting backdrop for the energy in our Las Majadas conference room. The passion that these extravagant landscapes have evoked in Chileans is transformational, enduring, and contagious. Conference organizer James N. Levitt, manager of land conservation programs at the Lincoln Institute, summed up the feeling in all of us when he said that Chile’s “destined to become one of the most important green focus points on the planet.”

Of course, it’s a complex story with overlapping currents. For the country’s most powerful industry, mining—a mainstay of the national economy—the landscape has been a husk, something to peel away to reveal something else with greater value: copper. Chile exports a third of the world’s copper and depends heavily on the $11 billion it brings in annually for the government. Since Spanish colonial times, what’s underground has always trumped what’s on the ground. Neruda said, “If you haven’t been in a Chilean forest, you don’t know this planet,” yet until recently a forest would be felled if it impeded the development of a mine. It wasn’t until this decade that a Chilean court ruled that a tree-clad, Mediterranean slope not far from Santiago has more value standing than excavated; protected in 2013, that area is now the San Juan de Piche Nature Sanctuary. During a visit there, we got to crush a pungent, clean-smelling leaf from a peumo tree, a 65-foot evergreen with cracked gray bark, allowing us to participate in an experience unforgettably captured by Neruda: 

I broke a glossy woodland leaf: a sweet aroma of cut edges brushed me like a deep wing that flew from the earth, from afar, from never… I thought you’re my entire land: my flag must have a peumo’s aroma when it unfurls, a smell of frontiers that suddenly enter you with the entire country in their current.

At the same time, environmentalism has been part of a national healing process in a country still emerging from the shadow of what it calls “a different 9/11”—September 11, 1973, the day the Chilean military overthrew the democratically elected socialist government and set up a brutal dictatorship that lasted 17 years. Heraldo Muñoz, the country’s current foreign minister, has written that for many it was “a crushing loss of innocence. We had believed that our country was different from the rest of Latin America and could not fall prey to the horrors of dictatorship.” Conservation issues were one way for the country to start peacefully putting itself back to rights: widespread demonstrations in 1976 led to the alerce being proclaimed a national monument. “The military called us sandías—watermelons—green on the outside, red on the inside,” Raphael Asenjo, a veteran of those days, said at our meeting. He’s now chief justice of the new environmental court in Santiago. “But if we went to court, it was harder for judges to rule against us since we weren’t political.” The military, which championed free market reforms, unintentionally rallied new conservationists by subsidizing owners of ancient, slow-growing forests to chop down hundreds of thousands of acres of these trees—repositories, according to Rick Klein, founder of Ancient Forest International, of the oldest genetic information above water—and replace them with monoculture plantations of imported North American pines. The substitute trees are such speedy growers they’re ready to be mashed into wood pulp for export in as little as seven years. “Wood is Chile’s new copper,” was a boast of the early 1980s. 

The most dramatic conservation successes have come since the restoration of democracy in 1990—and they continue. By happy chance, I was seated next to Foreign Minister Muñoz, now the country’s champion of marine protection, on my flight down to Santiago. (He was one of the lucky ones during the dictatorship; his only scar from a single torture session is a finger that never healed properly.) Chile thinks of itself as a “tri-continental country” with claims on Antarctica and sovereignty over the Desventuradas, or Unfortunate Islands, a two-day boat ride west from the mainland, as well as over Easter Island, another five days farther away. In 2015, Chile created a no-take marine reserve the size of Italy around the Unfortunates. Illegal fishing is now, Muñoz told me, the world’s third most profitable criminal activity (after drugs and illegal arms sales). A much bigger 278,000-square mile Marine Protected Area (MPA) around Easter Island being developed with the local Polynesian community will be one of the largest in the world. Professional divers who’ve started exploring the Desventuradas waters liken the area to a Patagonia of the deep: “The walls of brightly colored fish make it nearly impossible to see the hand in front of your face. It’s only when we come to pristine places that we are reminded how it used to be before humans.”

Global Conservation Leader

The first protectors of this exceptional country were the indigenous Mapuche people from south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina. These canny warriors kept three successive armies at bay for 400 years—forces sent by the Incas and then the Spanish and finally the newly independent Chilean government—bottling up a growing population in the center of the country, south of the northern deserts. Much of Patagonia had no permanent settlements until the 20th century, and today 85 percent of Chileans still live in the Central Valley, where land in between big cities like Santiago is intensively farmed. Longtime vineyards are growing in size and number, joined more recently by an array of avocado orchards spreading up hillsides like sprawling subdivisions (“avo-condos,” we dubbed them as we drove past). 

With 19 percent of its land in a designated public park or preserve (compared to 14 percent in the U.S.), Chile is a global conservation leader. But 85 percent of Chile’s national parks and other protected areas are down south, while only one percent of the crowded center has that kind of security, though it is a special landscape in its own right, as one of the world’s five species-rich and distinctively Mediterranean ecoregions. Considering that 90 percent of all the land outside the park system is privately owned, this might sound like a discouraging prospect for conservation but in fact points the way to the future, thanks to a brilliant and unprecedented change to the laws of the country.

El Derecho Real

Just months before our conference, after eight years of persuasion and debate, the Chilean Congress unanimously passed the derecho real de conservación, or “real right of conservation”—a new kind of property right, that had, as Raphael Asenjo remembers, been considered “a crazy idea.” The law invites Chilean citizens to participate in conservation by setting up PPAs (privately protected areas) that will now have the same durability and legal standing as public parks. It democratizes the perpetuity business by making it a personal, voluntary act—and is also considerably cheaper. “We do not need to buy up the land to save it,” William H. Whyte wrote in The Last Landscape, a reverberating 1968 open space manifesto, pointing to “the ancient device of the easement.” Since medieval times, Whyte said, land ownership has been understood to be a “bundle of rights,” which allows property owners to peel off the right to develop their land and then separately sell or donate that right for less than the full purchase price of a property to a parks agency or a nonprofit group called a land trust. In the decades since Whyte’s clarion call, 24,700,000 acres of the U.S. landscape (an area nearly as big as Virginia) have come under easement. But though the idea has been spreading globally, the remedy wasn’t available in Chile because it’s a civil law country, such as Italy or Switzerland—unlike the U.S., which is a common law country.

Common law in the United States and other English-speaking countries got its start in England after the Norman Conquest, when the new government attempted to coordinate regional customs by giving judges considerable leeway to decide what it was the customs had in common—making judges the main source of law. By contrast, the rest of Europe looked to rules that had been established for all time, it was thought, by the Byzantine emperor Justinian in a 6th-century compilation of Roman law. Under civil law, a decision not to build on a piece of land is considered a restriction on the main purpose of holding property, which is to make money for its owner. But recently, Jaime Ubilla, a Santiago attorney with global experience (he has a Tokyo MA, a University of Edinburgh Ph.D., and also speaks Mandarin), proposed that a derecho real de conservación is consistent with this age-old understanding, because modern conservation biology has shown that undeveloped land has ever-increasing value when kept in its natural state. So rather than constraining landowners, not building frees up a way for them to amass natural capital. The result is a law and a rationale that other civil law countries can now adopt.

In Chile, the hope is that one of the first areas to benefit from a derecho real will be the San Juan de Piche Nature Sanctuary, whose owners went into debt to challenge the mining interests in court. And the timing of that arrangement might just coincide with another unprecedented development in Chilean private land conservation—the impending donation by a single landowner of a gargantuan, all-in-one-go contribution to the country’s national park system. 

Tompkins Conservation

It began as a lark: young North Americans in a beat-up van—“conquistadors of the useless,” as they later called themselves—driving through South America in 1968 for another six months of “peak experience” skiing, surfing, and climbing before “coming to grips with entering the industrial work force.” They climbed Fitz Roy, the mountain now on the Patagonia label: one of them was Yvon Chouinard, who later founded the clothing company in 1973; another was Douglas Tompkins, also in the clothing business, who had started and just sold The North Face (financing the trip) and who, when he himself arrived back in California, founded Esprit, which he sold in 1989 to become what his detractors called an “eco-baron.” Tompkins moved to Chile and, in 1993, married Kristine Tompkins, until then Chouinard’s CEO at Patagonia. They bought two million acres of wild land in Chilean and Argentine Patagonia in chunks of tens or hundreds of thousands of acres, making them the largest private landowners in the world. Their aim was to build yet another brand, this one for perpetuity. The strategy: feed their land into Chile’s national park system through a series of deals, cumulatively establishing it as an irresistible force—a “gold standard” of protected places Chile will still be holding in trust for the world 200 years from now.

Doug Tompkins unfortunately died in a freak kayak accident over a year ago, so it’s been left to Kris Tompkins to complete their project, which will be announced within the year, according to a report at our conference from Hernán Mladinic, a sociologist and executive director of one of the future national parks and the Tompkins team member negotiating final details with the Chilean government. Kris Tompkins will donate her last million acres, the biggest-ever single donation of land to a country; in return, the government will add 9.1 million acres of state land, creating five new national parks and expanding three others—all in the same moment. A couple of the new parks have until now been Tompkins showcases: Pumalín, which shelters a quarter of the country’s remaining stands of never-logged alerce, and Patagonia Park, the largest grassland restoration project in the world, along with its keystone species like pumas and Andean condors—a project that also, as Kris Tompkins says, can remind people “what the world used to be like everywhere and might be again.” 

What does conservation look like from a 23rd-century perspective? In an unusually candid talk Kris Tompkins gave at Yale last spring, she explained that she and her husband had always thought at the largest scale. “Leverage for us is everything—every time you have a transaction in front of you, you’re looking at the possibilities of expansion, thinking where is the hustle in there to leverage?” They took the long view in order to plant an even farther-reaching vision. “Considering that you’re spending a few hundred million dollars on protecting land, you want to make sure your investment is as protected as possible. . . . I’m not going to work that hard if something’s only going to last 25 to 50 years.” 

They’ve always thought of themselves as developers, though on a different trajectory. This means working among people and within them, showing them that parks are a competitive business (“more profitable than copper,” as Mladinic says), but at the same time doing something internal that only takes effect gradually. In Kris Tompkins’ words: “When you’re dealing in large landscapes, the number-one thing you have to do, before you leave or kick the bucket, is get it so that the citizenry itself has fallen in love with and therefore become protective of their national park system. That takes maybe a generation, a generation and a half. A park’s a huge money-maker, but much more important, it becomes a point of pride. And then if some knucklehead comes along, which they do every so often, and attempts to fill the edges of, say, Olympic National Park, people will go berserk.”

The Cost of Saving Paradise

For almost every species, the natural world is a kind of fixer-upper rather than a ready-made dream home—a storehouse of raw materials that can be raided and refashioned. So we have birds’ nests and beaver dams, changes to surroundings that make life easier and strengthen the odds of survival. Medical anthropologists call such species-specific infrastructure ipsefacts—meaning “things they make themselves.” It goes beyond the realm of artifacts, our word for the changes humans make to the environment, by showing that what we do is a shared impulse; the urge to feather one’s nest is universal and inevitable. But weaving twigs and feathers into a small, shallow bowl has a minimal effect on the environment, and even beaver dams are disruptive and productive at the same time, creating large wetlands, upstream and down, that benefit many more species than they harm—whereas our reshaping of the world has brought Garden of Eden-like living conditions to many while casting out too many others and even destroying paradise.

One of the thorniest and most critical subjects at the conference came up during conversations about paying for perpetuity. Government and private donors have been traditional mainstays of land conservation, but they’ve pulled back since the worldwide 2008 recession. Getting the business and investment community more involved has to be the next step.They control $16 to $18 trillion in global savings, which, as David Boghossian, managing director of a Massachusetts-based socially responsible investment firm, told us, makes them “the most potent force for change available.” This is 30 times more than what’s in the hands of generous global philanthropists—money that seems like “decimal dust” in comparison.

Boghossian spelled this out in a presentation called “Making Impact Investment Boring.” Impact investing, a term only coined within the last decade, means hoping to do well financially while also doing the world a good turn. It’s a growing trend but remains years away from dullness and dependability—Boghossian’s desired state for impact investing, as an everyday transaction that feels as safe and comfortable as opening a bank account. 

The thorn has to do with the “opportunity cost,” the likelihood that an investor can make more money by creating an adverse impact on the landscape, since in this regard businesses have traditionally been set up on a semi-ipsefactual basis. Under business as usual, any inadvertent damage to the environment won’t affect the bottom line. It’s an externality, considered an acceptable trade-off; the planet takes the risk, not the investor. In this regard humanity has acted like other species, as if the landscapes we tinker with are as inexhaustible as the sun above, as unchangeable as gravity.

But thirty years ago, it began to sink in that the world has only a finite supply of raw materials, and sustainability became a watchword. Ten years ago, as climate change turned into something people noticed firsthand, it has been hitting home that long before oil and coal run out, their widespread use will warm the planet in a way that could compromise everything—“the landscapes, the waterscapes, and the skies that provide our common foundation,” Levitt said.

Until now, conservationists and the business community have always shared a kind of long and unspoken chess game. Businesses use up certain pieces of land before conservationists can counter by putting flanking pieces off limits, in effect taking them out of the game. But now it’s not only the players at risk; it’s the room where the game is being played. The externalities are coming indoors, and the business community will need to bolster conservation efforts just to protect its own interests.

That is what we experienced at the conference—a shift in the nature of reality, a realignment of focus that was more than just a shift in the underpinnings of conservation finance. 

A rose beneath the thorn: if it takes a village to raise a child, maybe it’ll take a hemisphere to shepherd the environment, with business leaders and conservationists working together to save the planet. 

 

Tony Hiss was a New Yorker staff writer for more than 30 years and is now a visiting scholar at New York University. He is the author of 13 books, including The Experience of Place and most recently In Motion: The Experience of Travel.

Photograph: BABAK TAFRESHI/National Geographic Creative​