Edesio Fernandes is a Brazilian lawyer and city planner based in London, where he is a part-time lecturer at the Development Planning Unit of University College London. He is also coordinator of IRGLUS (International Research Group on Law and Urban Space), a partner of United Nations/HABITAT. His research and teaching interests include urban and environmental law, planning and policy; local government and city management; and constitutional law and human rights in developing countries. For the last two decades, he has focused on the field of urban land regularization in Latin America and other regions.

Fernandes has lectured and taught in courses at the Lincoln Institute for several years and he coordinates the Institute’s Latin American Network on Urban Land Regularization. He helped organize and teach a course on informal land markets and regularization held at Lincoln House in October 2001, and is teaching the course again in November 2002 (see page 19). This conversation with Martim Smolka, senior fellow and director of the Lincoln Institute’s Program on Latin America and the Caribbean, explores some of these issues.

Martim Smolka: How did you become interested in informal land markets and regularization policies?

Edesio Fernandes: My interest in the problems of informal land markets goes back to the early 1980s, shortly after I graduated from Minas Gerais Federal University Law School in Belo Horizonte, Brazil. I began working at PLAMBEL, the state agency in charge of the metropolitan planning of Belo Horizonte, one of Brazil’s few historic planned cities. However, its detailed plans and maps did not reserve areas for the lower-income people who built the city, and as early as 1895, two years before its inauguration, 3,000 people were already living in favelas.

This number grew considerably over decades of intensive urbanization. In 1976, a pioneering zoning scheme was approved, but the favelas were again ignored and treated as unoccupied areas. In 1983, I participated in the interdisciplinary Pro-FAVELA team that drafted a legal formula to incorporate these areas into a revised zoning scheme. It was through this early work as a city planner, and by building academic bridges between legal and urban studies, that I came to explore the nature of the relationship between law, planning and sociospatial exclusion in third world cities.

MS: Has that legislation had any effect on the status of favelas in Belo Horizonte and Brazil in general?

EF: Until the 1970s, the official policy in Brazil towards favelas was eviction or neglect, with the occasional introduction of limited services for political convenience. The Pro-FAVELA program was a groundbreaking experience that sought to materialize the city’s newly recognized democratic commitment to sociopolitical and sociospatial inclusion of the favelas into the urban fabric. The approved formula has become a paradigm for urban land regularization in most Brazilian cities. The notion is that “special zones of social interest” should be created within the city’s zoning scheme, permitting planning and zoning regulations to be adapted to the specific requirements of the favela dwellers. Moreover, the formulation of specific land tenure policies should be combined with both inclusive urban planning mechanisms and participatory institutional processes of city management. This allows for the integration of informal settlements into the formal planning apparatus and for the introduction of services and infrastructure to redress long-standing inequalities.

MS: Are these goals now well integrated into the legal and administrative systems in Brazilian cities?

EF: Urban legislation has evolved in Brazil, but most Brazilian law courses do not offer specialized modules on urban land use and development control. Legal professionals in Brazil, and throughout Latin America, have long been trained to adopt an obsolete and individualistic approach to legal matters, typical of unreformed classical liberal legalism, and particularly the notion of absolute property rights. As a result, they are still largely unacquainted with recent legal developments, uninformed about the legal implications of socioeconomic dynamics and the challenges posed by rapid urbanization, unaware of the potential of different legal principles supporting urban legislation, especially the notion of the social function of property, and thus they are unprepared to deal with inevitable conflicts over the use and development of urban land. A groundbreaking legal development, though, took place in Brazil in 2001, with the enactment of Federal Law No. 10.257, entitled City Statute, which aims to regulate the original chapter on urban policy introduced by the 1988 Constitution. The new law provides consistent legal support to those municipalities committed to confronting the grave urban, social and environmental problems that directly affect the 82 percent of Brazilians who live in cities. In conceptual terms, the City Statute broke with the long-standing tradition of civil law and set the basis for a new legal-political paradigm for urban land use and development control. Municipalities must formulate territorial and land use policies, balancing the individual interests of landowners with the social, cultural and environmental interests of other groups, and the city as a whole. They are also required to integrate urban planning, legislation and management so as to democratize the local decision-making process and legitimize a new, socially oriented urban-legal order. The City Statute also recognized legal instruments to enable municipalities to promote land tenure regularization programs and facilitate access to urban land and housing.

MS: Can you elaborate on the connections between regularization, security of land tenure and broader concerns of poverty and social justice?

EF: On one hand, regularization programs focusing on upgrading projects have tended to neglect underlying land tenure issues, for example in the highly acclaimed Favela-Bairro program in Rio de Janeiro. As a result, these programs have frequently produced unintended perverse effects, such as occupation by drug lords, expropriation by force, and even, given the increasingly complex relationship between formal and informal land markets, what has been called “eviction by the market.” On the other hand, regularization programs focusing exclusively on the formal titling of individual plots, such as the large-scale programs inspired by the ideas of Hernando de Soto, have tended to reinforce unacceptable housing and living conditions in unserviced areas that are frequently remote and environmentally unsuitable.

In my experience, those programs that have tried to combine the two dimensions, upgrading and legalization, tend to be the most sustainable in urban, social and environmental terms. Comprehensive programs also tend to have a more controlled impact on both formal and informal land markets. Thus, they can be more effective in guaranteeing that the ultimate beneficiaries of the public investment will indeed be the residents in informal settlements, not the land developers and promoters who, by failing to offer affordable, sufficient and adequate housing options to the poor, have provoked the process of informal development in the first place.

MS: To what extent have these regularization programs really addressed or helped to resolve the problem of poverty alleviation?

EF: Regularization programs are always curative and need to be integrated with preventive urban planning policies, fiscal and legal measures, and management strategies aimed at promoting overall urban change, thus breaking with the cycle that has long produced urban informality. Moreover, they can only have a more significant impact on urban poverty if they are combined with programs aimed at broadening access to urban services and generating jobs and income to alleviate poverty.

There are many assumptions in this discussion that should not be taken for granted, especially given the findings of recent research. An enormous amount of money has been invested in regularization programs over the years, and it is about time that a comprehensive and critical review was promoted. There are many questions still left unanswered regarding the nature of the processes leading to irregular settlements, the means to address the issue and the method of actually implementing policies: How are informal settlements produced? Why is it important to regularize them? When and how should regularization programs be formulated? Who should pay for them, and how? What happens after the program is completed?

MS: What have you learned, as a lawyer, about the legalistic approach to titling policies?

EF: In particular, one should question critically the widely accepted argument that titling is the fundamental condition for residents in informal settlements to have access to services and credit, and thus to invest in their houses and businesses. On the whole, in consolidated situations where informal land occupation has been supported by sociopolitical mobilization of the residents, access to services and infrastructure has taken place regardless of their legal status. Research in several countries has already indicated that a set of socioeconomic and political-institutional circumstances may create a perception of security of tenure, thus encouraging people to invest in home improvements, even when the legalization process has not been completed. Research has also shown that jobless poor people have failed to gain access to formal credit even when they have titles, whereas untitled but employed people do get access to formal credit in some cases.

MS: Are you suggesting that the formalization of legal titles is not that important?

EF: No, what I mean is that it may indeed provide individual security of tenure, but it does not necessarily guarantee access to formal credit and does not produce sustainable settlements. Regularization alone usually fails to achieve what I think should be the ultimate objective of regularization programs—the sociospatial integration of the informal areas and communities. That said, titling is indeed important from many perspectives, such as to resolve domestic, family and neighborhood conflicts and to legally recognize sociopolitical rights. The challenge is to promote the recognition of individual security of tenure in a way that is compatible with the provision of social housing, thus reverting, or at least minimizing, the process of sociospatial segregation. The only way to do that is through a combination of urban planning mechanisms and city management strategies with innovative land tenure policies, stressing that there is a wide range of legal options other than individual freehold rights.

The importance of the topic is undeniable as the combined processes of urbanization and poverty are increasing internationally. UN figures suggest there are about 840 million people living in slums today, and reasonable projections suggest there will be 1.5 billion by 2020. This growing urbanization of poverty has already had many negative socioeconomic, political and environmental consequences, which tend to be aggravated by the processes of immigration and widespread organized crime.

MS: The Lincoln Institute has been deeply involved in these issues in Latin America for almost ten years. Do you have any final comments on how we can expand this work?

EF: The centrality of this discussion of intertwined land matters—land structure, access to land and housing, land management, and land use planning and development control—has been increasingly recognized internationally, confirming the relevance of the Lincoln Institute’s original mandate and overall research and teaching agenda. I believe the discussion of informal urban land development is of interest to all concerned about matters of social justice and human rights, as well as the conditions for market expansion in the context of economic globalization.

In closing, I would like to emphasize the importance of legal education. Urban change requires legal reform, which in its turn requires an adequate understanding of the nature, problems and shortcomings of the prevailing legal order, as well as the possibilities for change that it entails. The promotion of comparative research and teaching activities, such as those already supported by the Institute, is crucial, as well as support for academic and policy networks such as IRGLUS and the Latin American Network on Urban Land Regularization. The group of professionals in Latin America who have explored the interfaces between law and planning, and between legality and illegality, from a critical, sociolegal viewpoint is still quite small and needs to be widened. More than ever, it is imperative that we construct a sound legal discourse to provide support for new attempts to promote positive urban change, including by means of regularization programs. This is not an easy task, but we have been making progress.

Access to urban land by the popular sectors in metropolitan Lima has a troubled history resulting from the combination of spontaneous, unregulated land occupation and short-sighted policies to regularize land tenancy. Policies that were designed to resolve or mitigate irregular occupations have instead exacerbated the problem.

A workshop on “Local Governments and the Management of Urban Land: Peru and Latin America” in Lima in February brought together municipal officials, Latin American experts and community leaders to address the question, “Does the current regulatory framework guarantee the orderly and fair growth of Lima and other Peruvian cities?” The program was organized by the Lincoln Institute; the Institute of Urban Development CENCA, a community-based nongovernmental organization; the Local Governments Association of Peru; and Red Suelo, the land policy network of the Habitat International Coalition.

Regularization Policies

Land regularization is generally understood as the process of public intervention in illegally occupied zones to provide urban infrastructure improvements and to recognize ownership titles or other occupancy rights. Regularization policies are needed in many developing countries to reverse irregular and sometimes illegal development patterns, such as when land is occupied and housing is built before infrastructure improvements and legal documentation are put in place.

Since 1961, the central government of Peru has supported tolerant policies that have permitted the poor to occupy vacant public land, which was seen as a natural “land bank” resource. Most of this land consisted of sandy, almost desert terrain surrounding Lima which had little commercial value and was considered unsuitable for other market uses. Some 34 percent of Lima’s population lived in irregular “barriadas” or new towns in 1993.

In the absence of policies to effectively provide for organized and legal access to land, the permissiveness that allowed irregular development of these outlying areas has led to a crisis that now dominates the urban land policy agenda (see Figure 1). Many officials and other observers acknowledge that the system itself encourages and permits informal and unregulated growth, and that some of the policies designed to regularize land have actually created more irregularities.

Urban Land Management Problems

Management of urban land policies in Peru is presently being reevaluated because of tensions between central and local government control. Between 1981 and 1995, the municipalities managed land regularization procedures, authorizations and related policies. In 1996 the Peruvian government centralized the administration of economic resources relating to habitation and urban development, thereby denying local governments the ability to manage regularization problems. This political, administrative and fiscal centralization has created serious inefficiencies, however, since local government agencies must nevertheless respond to daily demands from the population regarding land and housing concerns.

Tensions also exist because of contradictions between the legal framework of formal regulations as promulgated by public officials and the informal market transactions that occur in the “real world” on a day-to-day basis. The mismatch between these formal and informal norms is reflected in the lack of understanding and distrust between the political authorities who determine land market policies and the urban practitioners and private agents who operate outside the formal policy framework.

In spite of attempts by commercial and nongovernmental organizations to improve the coordination and implementation of land policies that affect formal and informal market mechanisms, the political leaders still make the final decision. This situation exacerbates the politicization of public management (i.e., politics for politicians and not for the community). At the same time, it encourages a short-term perspective, since a governing authority is generally more interested in the immediate work to be accomplished than in a reliable follow-up of development plans requiring longer-term execution. As a result, Lima’s serious growth problems are not being adequately addressed by the current political, legal and regulatory framework.

Common Concerns

An important result of this workshop in Peru was the sharing of experiences from other Latin American and Asian cities where local governments can use public resources to promote more orderly cities. Even though the problems regarding land management are wide-ranging and complex, some common concerns emerged for discussion in future programs:

development of public policies and community-level initiatives to capture the value of “intermediate” land that is in the process of being developed and is often the most vulnerable to speculation;

municipal housing programs that use existing legal frameworks to encourage an orderly occupation of space. Specifically, there is a need to promote coordination among various public and private agents, as well as mechanisms to support financial credit for low-income people, housing construction, basic utility services and neighborhood participation strategies.

land regularization policies and a comprehensive articulation of land access policies to break the vicious cycle of irregularities that is causing the current urban growth and management problems.

better understanding of the dynamics of both formal and informal land markets, especially on the part of those who are charged with developing and implementing appropriate policies to address complex land market activities.

Some Definitions

Illegal – land occupation that expressly contradicts existing norms, civil codes and public authorization

Informal – economic activity that does not adhere to and is not protected by institutional rules, as opposed to formal activity that operates within established procedures

Irregular – subdivisions that are officially approved but are not executed in accordance with the law

Clandestine – subdivisions that are established without any official recognition

Figure 1: Regularization Policies on Land Tenancy in Lima

February 1961-1980: Law 13517 was established to make various central government agencies responsible for regularizing land tenancy procedures, but only 20,000 titles were issued.

1981-1995: The titling function was transferred to the Municipality of Lima and the delivery of land titles increased to some 200,000. In the 1990s the delivery capacity gradually decreased until it generated a land market crisis.

April 1996: The State Commission to Formalize Informal Property (COFROPI) was given responsibilities that were formerly assigned to the municipality.

Following a presidential promise to incorporate the poor into the land market process, some 170,000 property titles were delivered between July 1996 and July 1997. An additional 300,000 titles are expected to be delivered by the year 2000. However, COFROPI states that 90 percent or 180,000 of the titles delivered prior to 1995 have recordkeeping problems, so that many of the 170,000 titles delivered since July 1996 may be redundant. Hence, it is difficult to reconstruct how many titles were properly delivered under each administration.

Julio Calderon, an urban researcher and consultant on social development programs, is affiliated with Red Suelo, the land policy network of the Habitat International Coalition.

Population density has been identified by many analysts as a key indicator of the efficiency and sustainability of human development patterns.

A city’s master plan typically describes development goals and objectives through the use of multiple maps and written documents. Most maps and other representations of urban design are built with a two-dimensional (2D) vision and then transferred into regulatory instruments and strategic planning tools. Urban space is treated as being flat and divided up into puzzle pieces such as administrative areas (municipal, rural, urban, growing, expanding, fringe); land use areas (residential, commercial, central business, historic, tourist, informal, recreational); environmentally protected or restricted area (water catchments, floodplains, landslide-prone hills); and other categories.

When urban space is described through digital maps integrated with databases in a geographic information system (GIS), many additional layers of information can be considered in a three-dimensional (3D) platform. However, when real 3D urban space is managed by laws and other conventions based on a 2D vision, the physical and legal cities are operating in quite different and incompatible dimensions. This discrepancy was accepted in the past, when 2D maps were the primary resource available to represent the real city, but nowadays computer graphics can handle more complex objects in space.

Rethinking the legal and economic aspects of urban society by shifting from the traditional 2D vision to a 3D approach will be necessary to develop, implement, and control urban land policies more efficiently. A 3D cadastre is one of the tools that can facilitate that process through spatial databases and representations. The institution of a territorial cadastre is familiar in many countries, but does not exist in the same way in the United States. A modern cadastre is an integrated database system that holds information on land registration and ownership, physical characteristics, econometric modeling for property valuation, zoning, geographic information, transportation networks, infrastructure and services, and environmental attributes, all of which are linked to socioeconomic and demographic information on property owners.

Creating a New 3D Framework

Google Earth has popularized geographic information by allowing users to visualize a virtual 3D location at the desired level of detail and in a global environment. Google Earth and other geographic software can be used quite easily to change the viewpoint of reality. Moving from a top-down view, which shows the city as a flat area, to an oblique perspective permits the viewer to see the relief and height of buildings, trees, aerial utility networks, and other objects in space.

This type of 3D visualization can identify undeveloped spaces, buildings of different heights, scattered suburban housing, structures in isolated rural areas, and precarious slum construction, thus helping to infer changes in land uses. Even when 3D images are represented on a flat screen or printed surface, they show details that are hard to identify in a 2D map, such as shadow movements during the day, views from an apartment window, and spatial relationships between buildings.

The constantly evolving 3D technology is changing the paradigms of urban planning and land policy because it impacts not only how the city is viewed but the way property rights and other restrictions in space are described. As a result, a new urban legal framework based on 3D laws and 3D property registries will be needed to describe objects in space instead of just flat con-tours. The 3D laws affect rights in space, not in a plane of projection, and in this context it will be possible to define 3D land policies.

For example, a 3D image of the basic, maximum, and actual floor-area-ratio (FAR) for a set of land parcels would facilitate the use of land management instruments such as charges for the purchase of building rights for new development. To support a 3D legal framework it is necessary to have spatial data systematized on 3D cadastres, which create and maintain up-to-date spatial databases and volumetric representations of cities, as well as a 3D property registry in which every property and its restrictions are identified and documented.

Land surveyors, geologists, biologists, and engineers are accustomed to determining the location of physical objects in space by specifying attributes such as mineral deposits, water bodies, contamination or fumes in the air or underground, or restricted spaces around power lines, but legislators, urban planners, assessors, and others are not used to describing the intersections of more than two attributes in space. The increasing complexity of infrastructure and densely built-up areas requires the proper registration of their legal status (private and public), which can be provided only to a limited extent by the existing 2D cadastral registrations.

Despite its promise as a tool for urban planning and the extensive research and progress in practice to date, no country has a true 3D cadastre with complete functionality. The evolving concepts involved in this new process should be based on the ISO 19152 Land Administration Domain Model (LADM), which provides support for 3D representations (van Oosterom 2011).

The Virtual 3D City

The first idea that usually comes to mind regarding a 3D image is its representation in regular shapes such as cubes, prisms, and cylinders, but these simple forms have proved insufficient to analyze urban space. Seeking a closer match with reality, researchers and designers have developed techniques to overlay photographs of building facades on building contours, and to represent all architectural characteristics of a building using 3D computer-aided design (CAD) software.

However, even these types of virtual 3D buildings typically were placed on a flat reference plane, which created a false image because it showed all buildings at the same level. By adding relief through digital perspectives based on digital terrain models, virtual 3D buildings could be placed at the correct altitude relative to sea level. The next step was to overlay aerial orthophotos on digital relief images, resulting in much more realistic 3D images of the real (physical) city (figure 1).

Presently, 2D and 3D urban models continue to be built with points, lines, polygons, and images. These models are useful but still insufficient for detailed urban analyses because, as noted by the Brazilian geographer Milton Santos, “Geometries are not geography” (Câmara 2000). In fact, several kinds of geographic information are used to develop land policies—human, physical, economic, and environmental—and all of them occur in space.

GIS contributes to the process of building a virtual 3D city by permitting linkages between statistical data and geometric shapes to generate thematic information images that can be applied to a variety of land policy issues. The 3D image created in a GIS platform is frequently more useful for urban planning purposes than a photograph of the same sector because the 3D platform makes it is possible to highlight certain information of interest, create prospective scenarios that anticipate the economical effects of certain land policy decisions, or evaluate the environmental impacts of new development.

Formal and Informal Virtual 3D Cities

The virtual 3D city represented geometrically is useful in several types of analyses, such as vehicle traffic studies, propagation of cell phone waves, or any type of infrastructure network analysis. For other kinds of analysis, even the virtual 3D city is not sufficient, as when a lawyer needs to visualize the legal 3D city as defined by urban and environmental regulations. Figure 2 shows two sets of virtual 3D city blocks, one representing existing buildings and the other indicating the development potential of those buildings based on the applicable urban regulations. These two images show different densities and consequently variable land and property values, but in both cases the property tax base and potential value capture charge can be estimated precisely.

In Latin America, where the incidence of informality is emblematic of the urban landscape, it is important to visualize and define the informal as well as the legal dimensions of the city. Informal settlements develop when households cannot afford housing supplied by the market or by social programs. People must find a place to settle, which is often on hazardous or protected land that is inappropriate for housing, or on vacant public or private land. The magnitude of the need for housing often surpasses the amount of land available, thus forcing informal settlers to build taller structures at higher densities (figure 3).

Every occupied space is a part of the city and should be considered in the urban databases of the cadastre. The task of connecting the virtual informal city with the rest of the virtual city is a bigger challenge in 3D than in 2D due to complexities in dealing with parcels where owners and occupants are different but may share the same space. Infrastructure is also organized differently in these areas. In the formal city, for example, public infrastructure networks consisting of fixed pipes, cables, roads, and rails are regularized and stable. In the informal city, infrastructure networks are often self-built and change constantly as the settlement expands. A 3D cadastre can inform planners of the gaps between the characteristics of the population demanding shelter and the effective supply of land and its attributes, thus helping define policies to address unplanned informal settlements.

3D Dynamic Cities

Changes taking place in cities can be visualized and measured in several ways, for example through studies of densification, migration, and expansion of infrastructure networks. These studies assume that social, economic, and environmental variables are constantly changing although the land is static. However, other forces that produce change in the city can cause dislocations of different intensities that can be measured in space (3D) and time (4D). For example, the continental plates are moving South America, its cities, public and private properties, and infrastructure networks slowly toward the west at the rate of 2 centimeters (cm) per year. These movements, which seem insignificant, have consequences for urban policy if one considers that in 50 years a property could be moved as much as 1 meter from its current position.

Even more extreme movements are the consequence of the dynamic nature of our planet. The earthquake in February 2010 impacted the Chilean region of Bio-Bio at many different scales. Measurements by the Transportable Integrated Geodetic Observatory (TIGO) in the city of Concepción recorded that the entire territory moved initially toward the northwest and then ended with a displacement of 3 meters toward the southwest, all within 30 seconds. During this event, the height of land shifted by 50 cm. The telluric movement carried away properties and destroyed urban infrastructure and buildings, and the damage was compounded by the subsequent tsunami. A similar pattern was observed during Chile’s 1960 earthquake, the most severe ever registered in the world, when the ground moved with such velocity that some properties disappeared into the sea and other land areas emerged.

The January 2010 earthquake in Haiti produced an estimated 20 million cubic meters of debris in 35 seconds, even though significant land displacements were not registered. From the point of view of the cadastre, however, these two disasters had very different impacts. If the urban information had been structured in thematic layers and integrated in a GIS platform, the earthquake in Haiti would have affected the construction layer and several representative building types would have disappeared. In Chile, the construction layer was modified mainly by the tsunami, but the land itself was affected by the spatial displacement and shifts resulting from the telluric movement. Fast-moving natural disasters like these change the environment and people’s lives radically, and have important implications for government priorities, including definitions and implementation of land policy, both before and after such events.

Predictable climate change events, underground contamination, air pollution, and other such data can be mathematically modeled before they happen. By connecting these models with the spatial databases of a 3D cadastre, it is possible to create prospective 3D scenarios of the potential impacts and identify the neighborhoods and properties that could be affected. Unpredictable phenomena such as earthquakes and sudden flooding can be represented much more quickly if the measurement instruments tracked by environmental institutions or government agencies are connected to the spatial databases of 3D cadastres. The spatial representation of the impact can be made available soon after the event.

In sum, the 3D representation can help define preventive land policies to address predictable changes and also enable the readjustment of current land policies after unpredictable natural events.

3D Networks and Infrastructure

Infrastructure and transport networks move through 3D parcels in different ways and allow the city to remain active and fluid. Some of these networks are invisible by nature, such as the microwaves of cellular phones; others are invisible because they are located underground, such as infrastructure tunnels and pipes; and others are easily visible because they are built on the surface, such as roadways or utility lines. Figure 4 illustrates some of the complex spatial intersections that occur in the overlapping layers of infrastructure and transportation networks within 3D parcels.

These spatial relationships among networks and public and private properties, environmental reserves, mineral deposits, water bodies, and other features have been treated inefficiently through 2D cartographic norms, but they require the development of specific, new 3D norms to enforce the social function of property with equity and justice. For example, Article 1.286 of Brazil’s Civil Code states that a landowner is obligated to provide a right of way through her property for cables, pipes, and other underground conduits that serve the public at large and could not be built elsewhere. The law also outlines the need to determine the amount of area affected by public works projects in each parcel and its corresponding value in order to calculate the compensation due to the owner. 3D cadastral records can be an important contribution to facilitating such transactions.

3D Land Market Value

One of the functions of a territorial cadastre is to provide information to determine the value of the parcels with respect to property taxation and urban planning policies. In Latin America, land values generally have been based on ad hoc valuation methods (such as the replacement value of buildings) that use construction data and land values for each cadastre sector (Erba 2008). This practice does not always produce reliable valuations because it is difficult to keep the cadastral databases up-to-date, and the implementation of the valuation methods may be arbitrary from place to place.

An alternative valuation method now being implemented across the region is the use of spatial econometric models to determine property values with the desired level of statistical precision. This is important because land values change across urban space and depend on variables such as urban regulations, environmental restrictions, scenic views, infrastructure, and other features associated with the property, such as underground or airborne elements.

The most modern GIS platforms developed for 3D cadastres even allow the assessor to “stand” inside a building at any given altitude before the building is constructed. The software allows the assessor to see the view that will be available from the window of the dwelling, identify relationships to other buildings, perceive the natural landscape, and note other relevant characteristics of the property. Such data help determine the relevance of externalities to the value of the property, an aspect often neglected in valuations based on traditional replacement value methods.

Figure 5 shows a perspective of the surface gradient of land values per square meter obtained from sample points corresponding to properties for sale. The surface has the same coordinate reference system (x, y) as the entire city. Even when the spatial third dimension (z) is not related to the geographic space, it is possible to put the surface under the legal virtual city (as shown in figure 2) and analyze the spatial correlation between the land value per square meter and relevant urban regulations. Such an application is another possible contribution to the development of land policies based on 3D cadastre techniques.

Conclusions

While the technologies used to measure, represent, and store information are now evolving toward 3D platforms, urban legislation and land policies continue to approach the city as a flat land surface. To visualize the buildings and the restrictions imposed on properties in 3D is a considerable advancement for those responsible for urban decision making. Nevertheless, there is a long way to go before 3D information is integrated as part of urban legislation and property titles.

The consolidation of a 3D cadastre, which registers how 3D parcels intersect with the corresponding legal norms and regulations, would contribute to more effective urban and environmental planning, infrastructure network design, and the prevention of informality by permitting the construction of future scenarios showing the impacts of land policies in space. Changing the term area to space would be a first step in giving urban and environmental legislation a 3D connotation, and would be a simple and relevant way to start the process of introducing this new paradigm. Structuring a 3D property registry is still under development, but when it is established landowners will understand that they own cubic feet instead of only square feet.

About the Author

Diego Alfonso Erba is a fellow at Lincoln Institute of Land Policy where he coordinates distance education programs for the Program on Latin America and the Caribbean. He also researches, publishes, and manages studies on cadastre and GIS applications.

References

Câmara, Gilberto. 2000. http://mundogeo.com/blog/2000/01/01/geometrias-nao-sao-geografias-o-legado-de-milton-santos/

Erba, Diego A. 2008. Catastro e información territorial en América Latina (CD-Rom). Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

van Oosterom, Peter. 2011. Preface of the Proceedings 2nd International Workshop on 3D Cadastre. Delft, The Netherlands http://3dcadastres2011.nl/

Acknowledgments

The author thanks these partners and colleagues in the development of research in this field of knowledge: Anamaria Gliesch-Leebmann, Design Concepts 4 You, Seeheim-Jugenheim, Germany; Everton da Silva, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil; João Norberto Destro, Aeroimagem S/A; Igor Bacigaluppi, Regional Government of Bio-Bio, Chile; Sergio Baeriswyl Rada, Municipality of Concepción, Chile; Andrea F. T. Carneiro, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil; Eduardo A. A. Augusto, Brazilian Land Registry Institute (IRIB), São Paulo, Brazil; and Martim Smolka and Anna Sant’Anna of the Program on Latin America and the Caribbean at the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

Una versión más actualizada de este artículo está disponible como parte del capítulo 2 del libro Perspectivas urbanas; Temas críticos en políticas de suelo de América Latina.

La introducción de programas de adjudicación de títulos de propiedad al mercado informal del suelo parecía ser la solución mágica al problema de la pobreza en países del tercer mundo. Varios gobiernos suspiraron de alivio al pensar que la lucha contra la pobreza ya no requeriría las complejas y estresantes medidas de redistribución, eternas causantes de conflictos entre clases y grupos sociales. Según esta fórmula mágica, bastaría con que los habitantes urbanos informales (alrededor del 50 % de la población de las grandes ciudades) registraran sus propiedades formalmente para obtener los títulos de propiedad, para entonces poder obtener préstamos hipotecarios de bancos privados. Con sus títulos y su recién adquirido acceso a los préstamos, la población necesitada podría aumentar su capital inmobiliario, mejorar sus viviendas y establecer pequeños negocios (de Soto 1986; 2001).

Con objeto de someter esta hipótesis a prueba y a petición del Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas e Informática del Perú (INEI), el autor realizó un estudio de la política de registro predial oficial del Perú, bajo la cual se otorgaron más de un millón de títulos de propiedad entre 1996 y 2000. Los encargados de ejecutar esta política fueron la Comisión de Formalización de la Propiedad Informal (COFOPRI) y el Registro Predial Urbano (RPU). Tal como se estableció en el Decreto de Ley 803 del Perú de marzo de 1996, la política de registro predial se propuso establecer una relación formal entre la distribución de títulos de propiedad, el acceso a mecanismos formales de crédito y el mejoramiento de las condiciones de vida de la población. Basado en la información aportada por las Encuestas Nacionales de Hogares (ENAHO) de 1998 y 1999 realizadas por el INEI, en el estudio se analizaron datos de viviendas que habían sido adquiridas a través de invasiones u otros medios ilegales y que carecían de títulos de propiedad o bien se los había otorgado COFOPRI a través del proceso de regularización. La base de datos del estudio incluyó 913.335 unidades en 1998 y 1.033.480 en 1999, de un total de 3.572.091 unidades habitacionales urbanas para ambos años. El indicador utilizado para determinar el acceso al crédito fue el financiamiento obtenido para la ampliación de la vivienda u otros gastos para el hogar, mientras que para determinar las condiciones de vida se utilizaron como indicadores la estructura de la vivienda y la existencia de servicios básicos.

Los promotores de la regularización de la propiedad en Perú sostienen la necesidad de otorgar títulos de propiedad a gran escala reconociendo la ocupación informal (es decir, legalizando la tenencia del suelo) y adjudicando títulos de propiedad registrada, a fin de establecer los vínculos necesarios para abrir las puertas al crédito formal. El registro oficial es el procedimiento jurídico por el cual los derechos a la propiedad llevan a la tenencia legal. En forma particular, el registro formal establece vínculos entre la legalización de suelo y propiedades y el acceso a hipotecas a través de la banca privada. Tal como lo establece la Asociación Path to Property (una organización dedicada a promover estas políticas a nivel mundial), detrás del proceso de registro formal se esconde la filosofía de que la prosperidad de los países con economías de mercado se debe principalmente a sus adecuados sistemas de propiedad, que permiten operar sus mercados mediante derechos de propiedad intercambiables en un mercado amplio.

Los derechos de propiedad deben formalizarse y los instrumentos de intercambio de acceso universal deben registrarse en un sistema central regido por reglamentos y normas legales. Así, los tenedores pueden tener pruebas irrefutables de su propiedad y protegerse contra el fraude y la incertidumbre. Por consiguiente, el registro oficial de la propiedad facilita canalizar la “energía” del sector informal hacia economías de mercado organizadas y prósperas. Vista desde esta perspectiva, la informalidad no es otra cosa que la incapacidad de los gobiernos de hacer que sus leyes coincidan con las verdaderas circunstancias en que su gente vive y trabaja. No obstante, tal punto de vista no logra reducir un fenómeno complejo a su dimensión jurídica y descuida sus aspectos económicos.

Política y resultados de la titulación del suelo

Con el objeto de acelerar la distribución de los títulos de propiedad y evitar problemas burocráticos, se transfirió esta responsabilidad de las municipalidades a COFOPRI. El Banco Mundial apoyó esta política y otorgó a COFOPRI un préstamo de US$38 millones en diciembre de 1998. Entre 1996 y 2000 se otorgaron 1.134.000 títulos de propiedad debidamente inscritos, 645.165 de ellos en Lima, 112.631 en Arequipa y 74.180 en Trujillo (las tres ciudades más grandes del Perú, en ese orden). Si bien es innegable el éxito de la política de registro formal en términos de distribución y registro de títulos de propiedad, es cuestionable el haber eliminado la figura de las municipalidades en el proceso y mermado su función jurídica en el sistema urbano.

Una vez ejecutada la política, se observó una estrecha relación entre el registro oficial de propiedad y las condiciones de vida en Lima. Entre 1998 y 1999, las viviendas regularizadas (antiguamente ilegales o informales) de la ciudad capital mostraron mejoras de construcción en paredes, pisos y techos; sin embargo, también se observaron mejoras de paredes y pisos en las viviendas no regularizadas. En el resto del país, el número de viviendas informales de las áreas urbanas sobrepasa al de viviendas regularizadas.

Si bien entre 1998 y 1999 el número de viviendas regularizadas fuera de Lima aumentó (de 17.929 a 48.869), también aumentaron las carentes de títulos de propiedad (de 371.005 a 392.436), lo cual pone en evidencia la persistencia de los mecanismos de invasión. Entre 1998 y 1999 aumentó la disparidad entre los diferentes tipos de mejoras hechas a las viviendas regularizadas y las informales fuera de Lima para la mayoría de las categorías (véase la tabla 1).

Tabla 1: Mejoras de viviendas regularizadas e informales fuera de Lima, 1998-1999 (%)

1998 1999

Regularizadas Informales Diferencia Regularizadas Informales Diferencia

Mejoras de paredes 67,0 41,5 25,5 78,5 44,0 34,5

Mejoras de pisos 75,6 48,0 27,6 80,0 54,0 26,0

Mejoras de techos 61,0 21,0 40,0 78,0 23,0 55,0

Si se observa la relación entre los títulos de propiedad oficiales y el acceso al crédito, los resultados del estudio muestran que el 34 % de las viviendas de Lima a las que COFOPRI otorgó títulos de propiedad en 1998 (23.965 de un total de 70.725 viviendas) consiguieron varios tipos de financiamiento provenientes de bancos, agencias de préstamo o familiares, para efectos de hacer mejoras o renovaciones en sus hogares. En 1999, alrededor del 18,3 % de las viviendas tituladas (23.804 de un total de 129.588) obtuvieron tal financiamiento. Si bien no se dispone de información oficial sobre el número de solicitudes de crédito que fueron rechazadas, tal resultado demuestra que los hogares oficialmente registrados que adquieren acceso a los préstamos constituyen una minoría, y que de hecho, el número de ellos está en descenso. Varios factores complejos pueden explicar esta situación, entre ellos la recesión económica, la tasa de incumplimiento de pago del 10 % para los préstamos de la banca privada, la renuencia a otorgar préstamos al sector pobre de la población y los temores que tienen estos propietarios a hipotecar sus hogares y sus tierras.

De la misma manera, el número de préstamos bancarios otorgados en Lima a propietarios debidamente titulados disminuyó entre 1998 y 1999 (de 12.750 a 8.993). En cambio, en el mismo período aumentó el uso de recursos propios para financiar las mejoras a las viviendas (de 12.282 a 14.811). Como puede verse, no sólo una gran mayoría de los propietarios está gastando fondos propios en sus viviendas, sino también que se les está dificultando lograr el acceso a instituciones de crédito, todo esto a pesar de tener el registro formal de sus propiedades. Un estudio realizado por COFOPRI-DESCO (Riofrío 2001) identificó varias características que comparten las personas que están dispuestas a hipotecar sus propiedades:

• pertenecen a familias nucleares estables;
• marido y mujer son asalariados;
• tienen mentalidad empresarial y disposición a correr riesgos;
• manejan negocios propios (micronegocios, taxis, etc.); y
• están informadas sobre el Registro de Suelo Urbano.

De los 12.750 hogares oficialmente registrados y regularizados en Lima que también recibieron préstamos bancarios en 1998 para fines de renovaciones y mejoras, el 52,6 % los obtuvo a través del Banco de Materiales y el 47,4 % de la Empresa Nacional de Construcciones y Edificaciones (ENACE). En 1999, 8.993 hogares oficialmente registrados y regularizados recibieron préstamos para renovaciones y mejoras, el 84,43 % del Banco de Materiales y el 15,57 % de la ENACE. Puesto que ambas son entidades públicas que otorgan préstamos subsidiados (a la misma tasa de interés anual de 7 %), no hay conexión entre el registro proprietario oficial a través de los programas de regularización y el acceso a préstamos de la banca privada.

En cuanto al financiamiento para otras clases de gastos domésticos, en 1999 apenas el 8,7 % de los hogares registrados en Lima (11.323 de un total de 129.588) recurrieron a alguna clase de ayuda financiera. Dado que ninguna entidad pública otorga préstamos para este tipo de gastos, la mayoría de los hogares recibe el financiamiento por parte de amigos y parientes (47 %) u otras fuentes como agencias de préstamos (25 %). Sólo el 28 % de estos 11.323 hogares registrados obtuvieron préstamos de la banca privada para gastos del hogar.

En otras áreas urbanas, la situación de los hogares oficialmente registrados es diferente a la de Lima. En 1998 el uso de fondos propios superó a los préstamos bancarios para efectos de realizar mejoras a la vivienda (78,7 % en comparación con 21,2 %), mientras que lo contrario ocurrió en 1999 (51,3 % de préstamos bancarios en comparación con 42,9 % de fondos propios). En 1998, todos los préstamos fueron préstamos públicos otorgados por el Banco de Materiales, mientras que en 1999 el 93 % provino de dicha fuente. En cuanto a los préstamos para otros gastos domésticos, sólo el 13 % de los hogares oficialmente registrados (6.163 de un total de 47.302) recibieron en 1999 algún tipo de financiamiento. De este pequeño grupo, el 45 % recibió asistencia financiera de agencias de préstamos y otras fuentes; el 34 %, de amigos y parientes, y el 21 % de sus empleadores o centros de trabajo. Ninguno de ellos obtuvo fondos de la banca privada.

Conclusiones

El estudio arrojó las siguiente conclusiones en cuanto a la relación que hay entre el registro oficial de títulos y el acceso al crédito:

• En general, y pese al aumento de las propiedades regularizadas entre 1998 y 1999, el acceso a préstamos disminuyó durante ese período. Este hecho coincidió con la recesión económica y problemas afines que afectaron a los bancos privados.
• El uso de recursos personales supera al de los préstamos bancarios como fuente de financiamiento para la ampliación de las viviendas, tanto regularizadas como informales. Los préstamos para otros gastos domésticos provienen principalmente de parientes y amigos, seguido por bancos privados y sistemas prestamistas informales. Las familias de bajos recursos utilizan principalmente sus fondos propios o aquéllos provenientes de redes sociales para efectuar mejoras a sus viviendas (regularizadas e informales); los recursos de instituciones formales públicas o privadas son secundarios.
• Como hecho sorpresivo, los hogares informales gozan de más acceso a préstamos de la banca privada que los regularizados. En 1999, por ejemplo, el 100 % de los préstamos para mejoras a las viviendas regularizadas por COFOPRI en Lima fueron préstamos públicos (es decir, no hubo préstamos privados), mientras que el 28 % de las viviendas no regularizadas obtuvo préstamos privados. Estos números sugieren que los criterios de préstamos que usa la banca privada se basan en la estabilidad laboral y las entradas mensuales fijas, más que en la tenencia de suelo. La información obtenida de la ENAHO muestra que en 1998 el 25 % de las familias ocupantes de viviendas informales ganaron aproximadamente US$747,50 por mes, cifra equivalente a 6 a 7 salarios mínimos mensuales. En contraste, apenas el 12 % de las familias ocupantes de propiedades registradas oficialmente y regularizadas por COFOPRI recibieron un salario comparable. Esta paradójica situación, en la que los propietarios de títulos no tienen acceso a los bancos privados mientras que aquéllos sin títulos tienen mayores entradas económicas y mejor acceso a préstamos, quizás pueda explicarse por el hecho de que COFOPRI, en su empeño de otorgar rápidamente un gran número de títulos y de crear impacto político, concentró sus esfuerzos en barrios más recientes y fragmentados donde era fácil identificar a los propietarios, en desmedro de barrios más antiguos donde las familias conviven con varias generaciones bajo un mismo techo, dificultando la identificación de propietarios.
• Tanto para las propiedades regularizadas como las informales, las principales fuentes de préstamo fueron entidades públicas que otorgaron préstamos subsidiados (p. ej., el Banco de Materiales).

Como puede observarse, no existe una relación directa entre el número de títulos de propiedad otorgados a los ocupantes informales y su subsiguiente acceso a préstamos de la banca privada. Esta conclusión fue confirmada cuando el gobierno de transición, luego de la salida del expresidente Alberto Fujimori (1990-2000), reveló en 2001 que se habían registrado apenas 12.388 hipotecas en el RPU en todo el país, lo cual equivale a apenas un 5 % de los beneficiarios potenciales. Si bien los centros de registro pueden ser útiles, ciertamente no hay suficientes para incrementar el acceso al crédito. Una política eficaz requiere el estudio profundo de un número de factores diferentes, entre ellos:

• Las políticas en que se basan los préstamos de la banca privada. Tanto en América Latina como en los Estados Unidos abundan las políticas discriminatorias (por ejemplo, los tratamientos negativos que se dan a las poblaciones de bajos recursos).
• La cultura popular del crédito, particularmente el miedo que siente el pobre de perder su propiedad (la cual es prácticamente su único activo), como también la falta de entendimiento de los conceptos de títulos de propiedad, crédito e incluso banca. Es importante estudiar los patrones de inercia cultural sometidos a prueba por este tipo de políticas y considerar las oportunidades educativas que podrían facilitar estos procesos.
• La renuencia de la gente a registrar sus propiedades y a utilizar los registros.

Este artículo y la investigación hecha para el mismo no pretenden menoscabar la importancia de las políticas diseñadas para facilitar el acceso al crédito de la población pobre mediante programas de regularización. Por el contrario, dichas políticas son importantes y deben incentivarse, aunque no podemos sugerir que constituyan el único medio para atacar la pobreza urbana. Para que el sistema pueda mejorar, es fundamental contar con un mejor entendimiento del sistema de crédito y de la cultura de crédito popular, así como también desarrollar programas de asistencia financiera que hagan frente a la resistencia que tienen los pobres y la banca a las hipotecas.

Julio Calderón Cockburn, sociólogo y estudiante de doctorado de la Universidad de San Marcos en Lima, Perú, es autor de muchos libros y artículos publicados en las Américas y Europa y actualmente se desempeña como asesor independiente y profesor universitario. Igualmente es investigador asociado al Instituto Lincoln, el cual apoyó el estudio aquí referido además de otros proyectos de investigación y enseñanza en el pasado.

Referencias

Calderón Cockburn, Julio A. 2001. Comparative Analysis of the Benefited and Non-benefited Population by the National Formalization Plan. In Has the Well-being of the Population Improved?: A Balance of the Main Social Policies and Programs. Lima: National Institute of Statistics and Data Processing (INEI): 65-92.

de Soto, Hernando. 1986. The Other Path. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd.

_____. 2002. The Mystery of Capital. London: Bantam Press.

Fernandes, Edesio. 2002. The Influence of de Soto’s The Mystery of Capital. Land Lines 14 (1): 5–8.

Riofrío, G., J. Calderón y M. Zolezzi. 2001. Estudio sobre cultura registral. Lima: COFOPRI-DESCO. Agosto.

Una versión más actualizada de este artículo está disponible como parte del capítulo 2 del libro Perspectivas urbanas: Temas críticos en políticas de suelo de América Latina.

Al acentuarse las disparidades socioeconómicas y espaciales en las ciudades de América Latina ha resurgido el interés en políticas gubernamentales orientadas hacia la equidad que buscan reducir dichas disparidades. Sin embargo, las soluciones para los problemas urbanos más graves que aquejan a las ciudades actualmente deben cubrir más que la mera implementación de medidas incongruentes y de escasa definición. Las soluciones deben garantizar la equidad para todos los sectores de la sociedad. Son demasiados los casos en que vecindarios enteros se ven forzados a habitar en condiciones deplorables mientras las dependencias del gobierno buscan desalojar a los residentes en nombre de la protección del medio ambiente. Es evidente que la legislación urbana no puede seguir ignorando los derechos de las personas a tener un lugar donde vivir con seguridad y dignidad.

El impacto crítico de la desigualdad en la tenencia de la tierra en el entorno urbano exige que la población urbana pobre tenga acceso a la información técnica necesaria para negociar mejor sus inquietudes con los funcionarios públicos. En mi investigación exploro el papel de la educación ambiental en las comunidades de pocos ingresos de los países en desarrollo. Adoptando una perspectiva basada en la creación propia de capacidad, mi objetivo es desarrollar programas de capacitación para los dirigentes comunitarios en los niveles más básicos para manejar con más eficacia los conflictos locales sobre el uso del suelo y los riesgos ambientales.

Repercusiones del acceso desigual a la tierra

Al igual que muchas otras ciudades latinoamericanas, Río de Janeiro está seriamente afectada por la pobreza reinante y la degradación del medio ambiente. Intervienen factores complejos, tales como: Inestabilidad económica, tenencia desigual de la tierra, políticas de desarrollo deficientes y carencia de un sistema democrático que propicie los derechos humanos y las libertades. En mi opinión, los problemas que ha enfrentado Río de Janeiro durante las últimas décadas son el fruto de suposiciones existentes sobre la planificación urbana tipo “apartheid” y la falta de voluntad política para integrar a los sectores populares en el diseño de políticas para el uso del suelo.

En la región de Baixada de Jacarepaguá –en pleno corazón del área de expansión de Río de Janeiro– el extraordinario proceso de crecimiento urbano ocurrido desde 1970 ha provocado cambios drásticos en el paisaje, así como numerosos problemas ambientales. En medio de la espectacular belleza natural de los ecosistemas de lagunas, selvas de manglares y ciénagas, la región sigue albergando una enorme población de habitantes urbanos pobres que viven en favelas –comunidades de chabolas que son el resultado de un descontrolado proceso de urbanización del suelo público–.

Durante los años 1980 y a principios de la década de 1990, el desarrollo en la región tuvo un auge sin precedentes que ha dado pie a patrones insostenibles en el uso del suelo. La discriminación contra los habitantes pobres y las desigualdades en la tenencia de la tierra permitieron que los propietarios y especuladores se aprovecharan del auge mediante la obtención formal de títulos de propiedad y la subdivisión del suelo. Por otra parte, un grupo selecto de constructores privados se introdujo por sí solo en la escena local gracias a múltiples permisos judiciales para desarrollar en la región condominios residenciales para la clase alta, locales comerciales y empresas industriales.

El aumento de las presiones sobre el suelo se transformó rápidamente en una enorme variedad de protestas entre los sectores populares y los poderosos promotores inmobiliarios, lo que planteaba la amenaza de desalojo forzoso de los habitantes pobres. El descontento acumulado contra el gobierno por su incapacidad para controlar la especulación urbana y garantizar leyes de protección generó una situación sumamente peligrosa. La violencia y la persecución cobraron la vida de 30 dirigentes comunitarios, presidentes de asociaciones locales de vecinos, sus familiares cercanos y otros parientes. Los asesinatos fueron cometidos por escuadrones conocidos en la región como “grupos de exterminio” y no se ha llevado a cabo investigación criminal alguna.

El ciclo vicioso de la pobreza y la degradación ambiental

Dada la interdependencia que hay entre la pobreza y la degradación del medio ambiente, cabe pensar en los problemas ambientales en términos de la justicia social. Mi investigación gira en torno a la problemática de la desigualdad y los riesgos ambientales que enfrentan los residentes de Via Park, un asentamiento informal ubicado en la región de Baixada de Jacarepaguá. Una pregunta básica que surge de esta investigación es en qué medida la mejora del acceso equitativo al suelo contribuye verdaderamente para atenuar los factores que estimulan la degradación ambiental. Al relacionar los problemas del uso del suelo con el proceso de aprendizaje de la educación ambiental, la investigación demuestra que la degradación del medio ambiente es un fenómeno recurrente que se manifiesta en las maneras desiguales en que se ha usado y distribuido el suelo en la región.

El poblado de Via Park se ha visto atrapado en una lucha acérrima por el uso del suelo desde los años 1970, cuando el desarrollo urbano comenzó a afectar muchas comunidades pesqueras tradicionales en el área. Los constructores estaban deseosos de influir en el gobierno para quebrar el sistema de tenencia de la tierra de los pescadores, que estaba impuesto por la ley, para así entregar el suelo a las fuerzas del mercado. En la década de 1980, el área fue designada como patrimonio nacional para la conservación del medio ambiente, consagrada en el artículo 225 de la Constitución de Brasil (1988). Puesto que el poblado estaba ubicado en suelo protegido, las autoridades de la ciudad a cargo de la planificación arguyeron entonces que los residentes de Via Park no tenían derechos legítimos de propiedad.

En una atmósfera de temor y viéndose a merced de los promotores inmobiliarios y especuladores que seguían proliferando, los residentes de Via Park comenzaron a realizar subdivisiones ilegales y a vender pequeñas parcelas de tierra a los nuevos habitantes. El crecimiento de la población pobre y la concentración de la propiedad del suelo y la especulación contribuyeron a la expansión de los mercados inmobiliarios informales hacia comunidades cercanas de ingresos bajos.

Estas prácticas llevaban implícito un esquema complejo de transacciones comerciales y relaciones civiles que controlaban la invasión de terrenos baldíos, así como la división y venta de parcelas. En todo Río de Janeiro, el desarrollo urbano a través de canales informales es el “pacto territorial” predominante mediante el cual los grupos locales desfavorecidos han podido obtener acceso al suelo y la vivienda. Al mismo tiempo, los agentes del “mundo formal” han concretado acuerdos políticos para respaldar los mercados inmobiliarios informales y sacarles ventaja.

Fue en este contexto que se concibió un programa de mejoramiento ambiental a nivel comunitario, el cual vendría a implementarse en el poblado de Via Park. No obstante, debido a la larga historia de exclusión –que llegaba hasta las amenazas de desalojo forzoso– que habían sufrido, los residentes seguían mostrándose desconfiados. Se hizo claro que el éxito de la implementación del programa dependería de las estrategias de una gestión basada en una visión integrada del ambiente geográfico-ecológico y sociocultural.

Para que de verdad pueda resolverse el dilema de la pobreza y la degradación ambiental, la tarea de mejorar el medio ambiente debe ser compatible con la lucha por la equidad del suelo. Este novedoso enfoque de la educación ambiental se diferencia de la metodología tradicional, la cual suele centrarse más en la mera introducción de cambios físicos en el medio ambiente. La clave está en centrarse en las condiciones favorables para el desarrollo y el ejercicio de un sentido de “pertenencia a la comunidad” –una expresión tangible de sentimientos, valores e identidades en común en la que el suelo se percibe no sólo como fuente de riqueza, sino como un lugar de convivencia compartida con significados simbólicos–.

Lecciones aportadas por el poblado de Via Park

Si bien no existe una solución única para la vulnerabilidad social y ambiental de la población urbana pobre que reside en Via Park, su experiencia sí ofrece cierta perspicacia. Una alternativa propone crear “reservas naturales urbanas” incorporadas en la comunidad donde aquellos amenazados con el desalojo forzoso reciben estímulo para mantener su estilo de vida tradicional. A cambio, todas las instancias de autoridad gubernamental asumirían la obligación de promover la equidad del suelo, garantizando la tenencia y la protección de aquellos que forzados por las circunstancias viven en asentamientos informales.

Los aspectos del programa de educación ambiental iniciado en el poblado de Via Park son aplicables a otras ciudades de América Latina. El principio fundamental se basa en asegurar el respeto por la identidad propia de la comunidad. La experiencia de los residentes de Via Park demuestra que la actuación local puede contribuir con la consolidación de una lucha sociopolítica por la equidad del suelo en conjunción con la protección del ambiente. Esto está en sintonía con la corriente de pensamiento actual acerca del uso del suelo y la gestión ambiental, la cual sugiere un enfoque integrado que reconoce la función de liderazgo de los residentes locales.

El caso de Via Park revela que una excusa usada con frecuencia para justificar los desalojos es la “protección del ambiente”. En otras palabras, los habitantes urbanos pobres a menudo acusados de ser los principales protagonistas de la degradación del medio ambiente son en realidad las mayores víctimas. Para los 450 residentes del poblado de Via Park, el trauma de ser desalojados por la fuerza de sus hogares nunca será superado. Cinco personas, entre ellas dos niños y una mujer, perdieron la vida en la confrontación. La aldea de Via Park, que fuera destruida por excavadoras, sigue siendo un recordatorio de que la esperanza por la equidad del suelo radica en la solidaridad comunitaria, la administración pública eficaz y la democracia.

Sonia Pereira es docente invitada del Lincoln Institute. También está preparando su tesis doctoral del Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra de la Universidad Federal de Río de Janeiro, con el apoyo de una beca Fulbright. Como abogada ambientalista, bióloga, psicóloga social y activista por los derechos humanos, ha recibido amplio reconocimiento por su labor en el campo de la protección ambiental para comunidades de escasos recursos en Brasil. Ha sido galardonada con el premio “Citizen of the World” (otorgado por Universidad para la Paz Mundial, 1992) y el premio “Global 500” (otorgado por el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente-PNUMA, 1996).

One of every three urban citizens lives in slum conditions across the world today. According to the United Nations Human Settlement Programme, in 2006 there were nearly 1 billion people who could find housing only in slum settlements in most cities of Latin America, Asia, and Africa, and a smaller number in the cities of Europe and North America (UN Habitat 2006).

Siqi Zheng es profesora asociada del Centro Hang Lung para Bienes Raíces y subdirectora del Departamento de Gestión de Construcciones de la Universidad Tsinghua en Beijing, China. Se especializa en economía urbana y mercado inmobiliario de China, en particular en estructuras espaciales urbanas, ciudades verdes, oferta y demanda de vivienda, dinámica de los precios de vivienda y políticas de vivienda de interés social.

Sus proyectos de investigación innovadores y diversos han sido respaldados por instituciones de investigación internacionales como el Banco Mundial, el Banco de Desarrollo Asiático, el Centro de Crecimiento Internacional de la Escuela de Economía de Londres y varios departamentos del gobierno Chino, incluyendo la Fundación Nacional de Ciencias de China, el Ministerio de Vivienda y Desarrollo Urbano-Rural y la Agencia de Estadísticas Nacionales de China.

La Dra. Zheng recibió su doctorado en economía urbana y economía de bienes raíces de la Universidad Tsinghua y ha realizado investigaciones posdoctorales en economía urbana en la Escuela de Graduados de Diseño de la Universidad Harvard. Es fellow de investigación tanto en el Centro de Desarrollo Urbano y Política de Suelo de la Universidad de Pekín-Instituto Lincoln como en el Centro de Desarrollo Industrial y Gobernanza Medioambiental de la Universidad Tsinghua.

La Dra. Zheng es también vicesecretaria general del Congreso Inmobiliario Chino Global. Ha ganado premios como el Homenaje Posdoctoral Homer Hoyt (2010) y el Premio a la Mejor Publicación de la Sociedad Norteamericana de Bienes Raíces (2005). También es miembro de las juntas editoriales de Journal of Housing Economics e International Real Estate Review.

Land Lines: ¿Cómo llegó a asociarse con el Lincoln Institute of Land Policy y sus programas en China?

Siqi Zheng: Tomé conocimiento del Instituto Lincoln cuando realicé mi investigación posdoctoral en la Universidad Harvard en 2005-2006. Me incorporé al Centro de Desarrollo Urbano y Política de Suelo de la Universidad de Pekín-Instituto Lincoln (PLC) como fellow de investigación poco después de que se fundó en 2007. Desde entonces me he involucrado de lleno a las actividades de investigación del PLC, como la realización de proyectos, dirección de proyectos de investigación, revisión de propuestas de investigación y participación en conferencias. Recibí una beca de investigación internacional del Instituto Lincoln en 2008-2009, junto con mis colegas Yuming Fu y Hongyu Liu, para estudiar las oportunidades de vivienda urbana en varias ciudades de China. Ahora lidero el equipo del PLC que realiza investigaciones de relevancia política en temas como el análisis del mercado de vivienda y políticas de vivienda de interés social.

Land Lines: ¿Por qué es tan importante para el futuro de China el estudio de la economía urbana y el mercado de la vivienda?

Siqi Zheng: China está experimentando una rápida urbanización, a una tasa de alrededor del 50 por ciento en 2011, pero se espera que ascienda al 70 por ciento entre los próximos 10 a 20 años. Hasta 1,5 millones de inmigrantes internos se mudan a las ciudades en China todos los años. Este rápido crecimiento urbano ofrece beneficios económicos potencialmente muy grandes, ya que las ciudades ofrecen muchas mejores oportunidades para comerciar, aprender y especializarse en una ocupación que le ofrece al individuo una mayor oportunidad de alcanzar sus metas de vida.

No obstante, la rápida urbanización también impone potencialmente grandes costos sociales, tales como la contaminación y congestión, y la calidad de la vida urbana sufre de la tragedia fundamental de recursos colectivos. La investigación en economía urbana estudia estos temas y trata de encontrar una manera de maximizar las economías de aglomeración y al mismo tiempo minimizar las deseconomías de congestión. Esto es crucial para el futuro de China, porque la urbanización es el motor del crecimiento chino.

El sector de la vivienda es una clave determinante tanto para las dimensiones cuantitativas como cualitativas del crecimiento urbano. Junto con la dimensión cuantitativa, cada habitante de la ciudad necesita un lugar para vivir. La oferta de vivienda tiene influencia importante en el tamaño general de la ciudad y su costo de vida, y por lo tanto el costo de mano de obra. Junto con la dimensión cualitativa, las comunidades urbanas y barrios dinámicos crean interacciones sociales intensas. El efecto secundario de estas actividades reduce el costo de aprendizaje y contribuye a mejorar el capital humano.

Las viviendas para personas de bajos ingresos son un importante problema político en China. La desigualdad económica está creciendo y los precios de las viviendas son muy altos en las principales ciudades de China, de manera que los hogares de bajos ingresos se enfrentan a graves barreras económicas respecto a la adquisición de viviendas. Durante años, el gobierno de China ha ignorado la oferta de viviendas de interés social, pero recientemente ha comenzando a comprender que es crucial contar con políticas bien diseñadas de viviendas para personas de bajos ingresos para generar oportunidades de crecimiento urbano más inclusivas para todos los residentes.

Land Lines: ¿Cómo enfoca usted el estudio de la economía urbana y el mercado de la vivienda en China?

Siqi Zheng: Estoy realizando estudios entre ciudades y dentro de las ciudades sobre la intersección de la economía urbana y la economía medioambiental. A medida que la movilidad de mano de obra entre ciudades aumenta, China se está moviendo hacia un sistema de ciudades abiertas. En el marco de referencia de diferenciales compensadas, uso los precios inmobiliarios a nivel de ciudad para deducir la disposición de los propietarios a pagar por servicios urbanos, como una mejor calidad del aire, más espacios verdes y oportunidades educativas. Mi conclusión básica es que los hogares urbanos en China valoran la calidad de vida. A medida que los residentes urbanos se van enriqueciendo con el tiempo, su deseo de vivir en ciudades limpias y con bajo riesgo aumenta.

Dentro de la ciudad, examino las interacciones espaciales entre trabajo y vivienda: dónde vive la gente, dónde trabaja y cómo elige su modelo para viajar de su casa al trabajo. Uso datos de encuestas de hogares y de transacciones inmobiliarias para modelar estos comportamientos, ya que el patrón básico de la forma urbana está determinado por las elecciones individuales. Estos comportamientos individuales (“bolas de nieve”) también tienen implicaciones importantes en las interrelaciones entre el uso del suelo, el transporte y el medio ambiente urbano, porque la cantidad de vehículos está aumentando, y el aumento de kilómetros recorridos en los vehículos se ha convertido en un factor de contaminación importante en las ciudades chinas.

También estudio la dinámica del mercado inmobiliario y las políticas de viviendas para personas de bajos ingresos. Nuestro equipo de Tsinghua construyó el primer índice de precios hedónicos con control de calidad, utilizando datos de 40 ciudades chinas. Mis coautores y yo estimamos la elasticidad de ingresos a partir de la demanda de vivienda y la elasticidad de precios a partir de la oferta de vivienda, y examinamos los determinantes de dichas elasticidades. Usando microdatos, investigamos cómo la oferta de suelo y de vivienda y las inversiones públicas afectan las dinámicas de precios y cantidades en el mercado de viviendas urbanas. Presto gran atención a las elecciones de viviendas de los hogares de bajos ingresos y los inmigrantes rurales. Basándome en mi estudio empírico de comportamientos usando microdatos, exploro los tipos de políticas urbanas y de vivienda que pueden mejorar la posición de los grupos necesitados tanto en los mercados de vivienda como de trabajo.

Land Lines: ¿Qué desafíos cree que afrontará China en este campo en la próxima década?

Siqi Zheng: El mayor desafío es cómo conseguir una transición exitosa hacia la sostenibilidad. El rápido crecimiento económico de China en los años recientes se basó fundamentalmente en la exportación y se benefició de los bajos costos de mano de obra, suelo y regulación. Los desastres ecológicos y fricciones sociales que han ocurrido en muchos lugares de China son una señal de que la estrategia actual no es sostenible en el largo plazo.

Los dirigentes políticos deberían reformular las políticas urbanas en una variedad de maneras. Deben levantarse las barreras institucionales que todavía permanecen a la movilidad de la mano de obra. Se deben establecer correctamente los precios de las externalidades negativas debidas a las actividades de consumo y producción urbana (como la contaminación y la congestión), para que el comportamiento de los individuos sea coherente con la solución social óptima. También se tendrán que resolver los problemas de desigualdad de ingresos y desigualdad espacial. Es necesario realizar una mayor inversión en capital humano. La vivienda desempeña un papel primordial, porque es el mayor activo de la unidad familiar y también afecta al acceso a oportunidades urbanas y a la calidad de las interacciones sociales.

Land Lines: ¿Cuáles son algunas de las implicaciones políticas potenciales de esta investigación sobre el mercado de vivienda?

Siqi Zheng: La mayor parte de mi trabajo es un análisis empírico con microdatos, así que me concentro en los incentivos y las elecciones de los individuos, empresas y gobiernos. También analizo cómo estas opciones determinan la forma urbana, la calidad de vida local, el mercado laboral y el mercado de la vivienda. De esta manera podemos crear parámetros clave que den soporte al diseño de políticas por parte de los dirigentes. Por ejemplo, identifico las ciudades con distintas condiciones de oferta y demanda de viviendas, y sugiero que las autoridades deberían ofrecer opciones distintas de política de vivienda para personas de bajos ingresos. Las ciudades con un inventario de viviendas abundante podrían usar instrumentos por el lado de la demanda, como vales para vivienda, pero aquellas que no tienen viviendas suficientes deberían usar instrumentos por el lado de la oferta, como la construcción de más viviendas de interés social.

Land Lines: ¿La experiencia de China en el desarrollo del mercado de la vivienda se puede compartir con otros países en vías de desarrollo?

Siqi Zheng: Sí, porque muchos países también enfrentan situaciones difíciles en sus sectores de vivienda. Algunos de los desafíos comunes son cómo albergar a innumerables inmigrantes rurales en las ciudades, cómo brindar viviendas económicas a una creciente cantidad de personas de bajos ingresos; dónde y cómo proporcionar estas viviendas y, a medida que las ciudades crecen geográficamente, cuáles son las políticas adecuadas de urbanización y las estrategias de inversión en infraestructura que pueden generar un crecimiento urbano eficiente e inclusivo. Por medio de las conferencias y publicaciones de investigación producidas por el Centro de la Universidad de Pekín-Instituto Lincoln, las experiencias de China ya están proporcionando lecciones para otros países en vías de desarrollo.

Land Lines: ¿Puede describir algunos ejemplos de ofertas de vivienda en el sector de la vivienda informal?

Siqi Zheng: Algunos países como Brasil, India y China tienen muchos inmigrantes internos de escasos recursos que viven en asentamientos informales. Los gobiernos locales tienen muy poco incentivo para proporcionar servicios públicos en esos lugares, porque las mejoras, como agua limpia e infraestructura de alcantarillado, simplemente estimularían una mayor inmigración.

Chengzhongcun (pueblo urbano) es un tipo de vivienda informal típica de las grandes ciudades chinas. Representa un equilibrio entre la demanda de los inmigrantes por viviendas de interés social y la oferta de vivienda disponible en las villas que están siendo invadidas por la expansión urbana. Las altas tasas de delitos, la infraestructura y servicios inadecuados y las pobres condiciones de vida son sólo algunos de los problemas de los pueblos urbanos que amenazan la seguridad y la administración públicas. Mi investigación en Chengzhongcun muestra que los gobiernos locales al principio miraron con simpatía esta vivienda informal de bajo costo porque podía reducir los costos de mano de obra y por lo tanto contribuir al alto crecimiento del PIB en sus ciudades. No obstante, la baja calidad de la interacción social y la falta de servicios públicos básicos no proporcionan una manera de vida sostenible para los inmigrantes rurales de escasos recursos.

A medida que el sector industrial va evolucionando a actividades económicas de gran destreza, los gobiernos locales deberían considerar de qué manera mejorar la calidad del capital humano, en vez de concentrarse en la cantidad de mano de obra barata. Esto puede proporcionar un incentivo para mejorar las viviendas informales y transformarlas en viviendas formales, o para ofrecer viviendas de interés social a estos inmigrantes para que puedan acceder a más oportunidades urbanas y mejorar sus destrezas. Este proceso de transición está ocurriendo en China actualmente, y se extenderá pronto a otros países en vías de desarrollo que pueden beneficiarse de la experiencia de China.

Otro ejemplo es el papel de la oferta de viviendas en el crecimiento urbano. Muchos estudios ya demuestran que la oferta de viviendas puede respaldar o restringir el crecimiento urbano, porque el tamaño y el precio del inventario de viviendas afectan a la oferta de mano de obra y al costo de vida. En los países en vías de desarrollo, la oferta de suelo y vivienda se ve afectada por las regulaciones y el comportamiento de los gobiernos en mayor medida que en los países desarrollados. El diseño de políticas de oferta de vivienda se tiene que adaptar al crecimiento urbano futuro para todos los sectores de la sociedad.

He escrito muchos documentos de trabajo sobre estos temas y contribuido al libro, China’s Housing Reform and Outcomes del Instituto Lincoln (2011), editado por Joyce Yanyun Man, directora del Centro de la Universidad de Pekín-Instituto Lincoln.

The introduction of land titling programs to the informal land market seemed to offer a magic solution to the problem of poverty in third world countries. Various governments breathed a sigh of relief, as the struggle to reduce poverty would no longer require the complex and stressful income redistribution measures that always cause conflicts between social groups and classes. According to this magic formula, all that was required was for informal urban dwellers (about 50 percent of the population in the major cities) to formally register their properties and thus gain access to title deeds, so they could obtain mortgage loans from private banks. Their titles and newfound access to loans would enable them to increase their real estate capital, improve their homes and develop small businesses (de Soto 1986; 2001).

To put this hypothesis to the test, and at the request of Perú’s National Institute of Statistics and Data Processing (Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas e Informática–INEI), I conducted a study of the official real estate registration policy under which more than one million title deeds were conferred in Perú between 1996 and 2000. This policy was implemented by the Commission for the Official Registration of Informal Property (COFOPRI) and the Real Estate Registry of Urban Settlements (RPU). As stated in Perú’s Law Decree 803 of March 1996, the purpose of this policy was to establish a formal relationship between the distribution of land titles, access to formal credit mechanisms and better standards of living. Based on information provided by National Household Surveys (ENAHO) for 1998 and 1999, conducted by INEI, my study analyzed data on housing that either was acquired through invasions or other illegal means and did not have property titles or had obtained titles from COFOPRI through the regularization process. The data base consisted of 913,335 units in 1998 and 1,033,480 in 1999, out of a total of 3,572,091 urban housing units for both years. The financing obtained for housing expansion and other domestic expenses was used as an indicator to determine the access to credit, whereas the structure of the dwelling and the supply of basic services were used to determine standards of living.

Those who advocate the regularization of property in Perú argue that property titles should be granted on a large scale by recognizing informal occupation (that is, legalizing land ownership), awarding registered land title deeds, and thus establishing the links needed to gain access to formal credit mechanisms. Official registration is the legal procedure whereby actual rights to a property result in legal ownership. A particular characteristic of this procedure is the firm resolve to establish connections between the legalization of land and property and the access to mortgages through the private banks. As described by the Path to Property Association, an organization dedicated to promoting these policies worldwide, the basic philosophy behind the formal registration process is that prosperity in countries with market economies is largely achieved because those societies have adequate property systems that enable their markets to operate through exchangeable ownership rights in a wide-ranging market.

To grant landowners indisputable proof of ownership and protect them from fraud and uncertainty ownership rights must be standardized, and universally accessible exchange instruments must be registered in a central government system by legal norms and regulation. Consequently, through the official registration of property, the “energy” of the informal sector can be channeled toward organized and prosperous market economies. From this perspective, informality is merely the inability of governments to make their laws coincide with the real circumstances under which people work and live. Nevertheless, this viewpoint fails to reduce a complex phenomenon to its legal dimension and neglects its economic aspects.

Land Titling Policy and Outcomes

To speed up the distribution of land titles and to avoid troublesome formalities, COFOPRI took over this responsibility from the municipalities. The World Bank supported this policy, granting COFOPRI a US$38 million loan in December 1998. Between 1996 and 2000, 1,134,000 duly registered land title deeds were awarded: 645,165 of them in Lima, 112,631 in Arequipa and 74,180 in Trujillo (the first, second and third largest cities in Perú, respectively). In terms of the distribution and registration of land titles, the success of the formal registration policy is undeniable. However, the fact that municipalities were removed from the process is questionable, since their legal role in the urban system was undermined.

A close connection between the official registration of property and the standard of living was observed in Lima after the policy was implemented. Between 1998 and 1999, regularized (formerly illegal or informal) housing in the capital city showed improved construction of walls, floors and roofing; however, the nonregularized housing units also had improved construction of walls and floors. In the rest of the country, informal housing in urban areas predominates over regularized housing.

While regularized housing units outside Lima increased from 17,929 to 48,869 between 1998 and 1999, the number of units still without property titles increased from 371,005 to 392,436, indicating the persistence of invasion mechanisms. The gaps between different types of improvements on regularized and informal houses outside Lima increased between 1998 and 1999 for most categories (see Table 1).

Looking at the relationship between official land titles and access to credit, the study found that of the 70,725 houses in Lima awarded land title deeds by COFOPRI in 1998, about 23,965 (34 percent) of those homeowners gained access to varied types of financing, such as loans from banks, lending agencies or family members, to improve or renovate their homes. In 1999, the owners of about 23,804 (18.3 percent) out of a total of 129,588 titled houses obtained such financing. Although there is no official information on how many homeowners applied for credit and were denied, this result proves that officially registered households that gain access to loans are a minority and, in fact, the number has decreased. This situation is explained by complex factors including the economic recession, the default rate of 10 percent on private bank loans, fear of giving loans to lower-income sectors, and fear among these residents of mortgaging their houses and land.

Similarly, the number of bank loans to already titled landowners in Lima decreased from 12,750 in 1998 to 8,993 in 1999. In contrast, the use of own resources to finance housing improvements rose from 12,282 in 1998 to 14,811 in 1999. Not only is a larger majority spending their own funds on housing, but they are facing more difficulties in gaining access to credit institutions, despite the formal registration of their properties. A study by COFOPRI-DESCO (Riofrío 2001) identified several characteristics of those who are willing to take mortgages:

• Stable nuclear families;
• Both husband and wife are wage-earners;
• Entrepreneurial mentality and willingness to take risks;
• Have self-owned businesses (microbusinesses, taxis, etc.); and
• Have information on the use of the Urban Land Registry.

Of the 12,750 households officially registered and regularized in Lima in 1998 that also received bank loans for renovations and improvements, 52.6 percent obtained their loans from the Banco de Materiales and 47.4 percent from the National Construction Company (ENACE). In 1999, 8,993 officially registered and regularized households received loans for renovations and improvements, 7,593, or 84.43 percent from the Banco de Materiales and 15.57 percent from the ENACE. Since these are both public entities that grant subsidized loans (at the same annual interest rate of 7 percent), there is no connection between the official registration of property through regularization programs and access to loans from private banks.

With respect to seeking financing for other kinds of household expenses, only 11,323 (8.7 percent) out of a total of 129,588 households registered in Lima in 1999 resorted to any kind of financial assistance. Since no public entity provides loans for these expenses, most households receive money from friends and relatives (47 percent) or other sources such as lending agencies (25 percent). Only 28 percent of these 11,323 registered households gained access to loans from private banks for household needs.

In other urban areas, the situation of officially registered households is different from Lima’s experience. In 1998, the use of the households’ own funds for housing improvements predominated over bank loans (78.7 percent compared with 21.2 percent), whereas in 1999 bank loans predominated over own funds (51.3 percent compared with 42.9 percent). In 1998, all of the loans were public loans granted by Banco de Materiales, and 93 percent were from that source in 1999. With respect to loans for other household expenses, 6,163 (13 percent) of the total of 47,302 households officially registered during 1999 received some financing. Of this small group, 45 percent received financial assistance from lending agencies and other sources, 34 percent from friends and relatives, and 21 percent from their employers or work centers. None of them obtained funds from private banks.

Conclusions

The study yielded the following conclusions with regard to the relationship between official registration of titles and access to credit:

• In general, and despite the increase in the number of properties regularized between 1998 and 1999, access to loans decreased during that period, coinciding with the economic recession and related problems affecting private banks.
• The use of personal resources predominates over bank loans as a source of funds for the expansion of both regularized and informal housing. Loans for other household expenses are obtained mainly from relatives and friends, followed by private banks and informal lending systems. Lower-income families primarily use their own funds or those of social networks for improvements to both regularized and informal housing; resources from formal public or private institutions are secondary.
• Surprisingly, informal households gain more access to loans from private banks than do regularized households. For example, in 1999, 100 percent of loans for improvements to housing units regularized by COFOPRI in Lima were public loans, thus none received private loans, whereas 28 percent of nonregularized housing units did obtain private loans. This suggests that the eligibility criteria used by private banks is based on job stability and fixed monthly income, rather than on land tenancy. The information obtained from ENAHO shows that in 1998, 25 percent of families living in informal dwellings earned about US$747.50 per month. This is the equivalent of “6 to 7 minimum monthly wages,” a frequently used measure for salaries for lower-income sectors in Latin American countries. In contrast, only 12 percent of families living in officially registered properties regularized by COFOPRI earned a comparable salary. This paradoxical situation, whereby title holders do not have access to private banks, while those without titles have higher incomes and better access to loans, may be explained by the fact that COFOPRI, seeking to grant a large number of titles quickly and to create political impact, concentrated its efforts in newer, fragmented neighborhoods where it was easier to identify the landowners. In contrast, COFOPRI tended to ignore older and more close-knit neighborhoods where it was harder to identify the owners due to the presence of multiple generations living under the same roof.
• In the case of both regularized and informal properties, the main sources of loans were public entities that grant subsidized loans (i.e., Banco de Materiales).

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Thus, there is no direct relationship between the number of title deeds handed over to informal dwellers and their subsequent access to loans from private banks. This conclusion was confirmed when the transition government that succeeded former President Fujimori (1990-2000) revealed in 2001 that only 12,388 mortgages had been recorded in the RPU throughout the country, which is equivalent to only 5 percent of potential beneficiaries. Although registration facilities may be useful, they are certainly not sufficient to increase access to credit. Effective policies require an in-depth study of a number of different factors, including:

• The policies on which private bank loans are based. Discriminatory policies (redlining, etc.) are prevalent in Latin America, as in the U.S.
• The popular credit culture, particularly as regards poor people’s fear of losing their property (which is virtually their only asset), as well as the lack of understanding of concepts of property titles, credit and even banks. It’s important to study the patterns of cultural inertia that are put to the test by this type of policies and consider the opportunities for education that could facilitate these processes.
• The reluctance of people to register their properties and use the registries. The intention of this article, and the research behind it, is not to minimize the importance of policies aimed at facilitating access to credit by the poor by means of regularization programs. On the contrary, such policies are important and should be stimulated, although we would not suggest urban poverty can be resolved exclusively through this means. For the system to improve, it is essential to have a better understanding of the credit system and the popular credit culture, as well as to develop financial assistance programs that address the current resistance to the use of mortgages by both the poor and the banking sector.

Julio Calderón Cockburn is a sociologist and a Ph.D. candidate at the University of San Marcos in Lima, Perú. He has written many books and articles published in the Americas and Europe, and he currently works as an independent consultant and university professor. He is a faculty associate of the Lincoln Institute, which supported the study reported here and other research and teaching projects in the past. Several of his written works are available on the Lincoln Institute website in the Latin America section under LAC Papers (www.lincolninst.edu).

References

Calderón Cockburn, Julio A. 2001. Comparative analysis of the benefited and non-benefited population by the national formalization plan. In Has the well-being of the population improved?: A balance of the main social policies and programs. Lima: National Institute of Statistics and Data Processing (INEI): 65-92. de Soto, Hernando. 1986. The Other Path. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd.

_____. 2002. The Mystery of Capital. London: Bantam Press.

Fernandes, Edesio. 2002. The influence of de Soto’s The Mystery of Capital. Land Lines 14 (1): 5–8.

Riofrío, G., J. Calderón y M. Zolezzi. 2001. Estudio sobre cultura registral. Lima: COFOPRI-DESCO. Agosto.

Land and housing markets, and any other market for that matter, can be approached as arenas in which persons exchange rights to assets subject to constitutional rules, statutory and common law rules, and administrative rules and procedures. The value of land is often believed to be determined by expectations about what land uses will be legally permitted over time and the return from such uses. However, there is substantial evidence, international as well as U.S.-based, that markets and prices are also shaped by expectations about what is legally prohibited yet is nonetheless achievable through extra-legal or illegal means.

Scholars since Jeremy Bentham have linked markets and their viability to a legal regime of property rights which clearly defines, safeguards and facilitates the transfer of such rights through legal means. How then do we explain illegal or extra-legal property transactions: the buying and selling of stolen goods; subdivision of single-family houses into one-room rentals; and squatter settlements.

In all these contexts, assets are being acquired and used, hence there is property. There are also markets, frequently thriving, to exchange such assets. What is absent from these markets are legally defined rights. Their absence, however, does not prevent these markets from emerging and affecting supply and demand in the legal market. It is crucial, therefore, that such markets be understood, not just as an exotic feature of the developing world, but as alternatives to which actors in the market turn under certain conditions.

What happens if property rights are not clear, are contested or are not well enforced? Policy advisors rarely address this question, not because they fail to see that property regimes are frequently lacking in stability and security, but rather because they see their function as one of putting in place the ideal set of laws, regulations, and administrative and enforcement mechanisms that would guarantee stable expectations, secure rights and efficient markets (see Figure 1).

The only problem is that putting in place such laws and regulations rarely happens in a vacuum. Rather, it happens in a landscape of existing interests, entitlements, conventions and practices. It is the interaction between these new interventions and existing norms and practices that determines who is able to do what with which assets in society. Three examples illustrate my point.

Farm Restructuring in Eastern Europe

Until the late 1980s, farmland in Eastern Europe was organized within state farms, collective farms, or, in some cases, small private farms owned by farmers who had the right to cultivate but not sell or develop the land. The absence of competitive agricultural and land markets prevented many necessary adjustments from taking place: labor mobility, adjustment in farm sizes, incentives to invest or increase labor productivity, and moving land to better uses.

Some policy advisers have argued that unless the New Independent States establish family-based farms with legally, well-defined and well-protected private property rights that can be transferred easily, little can be done to promote necessary adjustments. How do farmers adjust to the new realities of the transition while constitutions are amended, laws are promulgated, cadasters are compiled and land registers are established?

The answer lies in short-term informal leasing, which is the most common land transaction in Eastern Europe for several reasons. First, informal leases occur mostly between neighboring farmers who know each other and the quality of the land being traded. Second, most leases are short-term, allowing farmers to reduce the uncertainty associated with long-term commitments in inflationary and politically unstable environments. Finally, short-term leases allow farmers to adjust their farming units, which speeds up the economic restructuring of the farming sector. Farmers conduct these short-term transactions not because they are legally permitted but because of norms, conventions and local networks.

Squatter Housing in Developing Countries

Conventional wisdom on squatter housing in developing countries has been that lack of tenure security is responsible for the poor quality of housing in these settlements. Granting legal titles, the argument goes, would provide the necessary security and unleash household savings into investment in better housing. Recent empirical work, however, suggests that legal title is neither necessary nor sufficient for tenure security to exist.

Furthermore, absence of land title does not prevent squatters from renting or selling their houses. Indeed, except when an eminent threat of eviction exists, informal markets evolve to reduce the uncertainty associated with illegal transactions. Rules and arrangements evolve over time to provide information about who owns what, enforce contracts and resolve property disputes. For example, neighborhood associations in Brazilian favelas maintain an informal register of residents and issue documents as proof of ownership. Middlemen and land subdividers in Jordan play a crucial role in finding buyers and even financing them. These roles substitute for, duplicate or manipulate the legal system that functions in formal markets.

Illegal Housing Conversions in the U.S.

A recent series of articles in the New York Times documents the surge of illegal apartments throughout the City of New York in response to continuing poverty and the dwindling supply of affordable housing. In Queens, for example, one- and two-family units are being converted into multiple apartments, turning even attics and basements into makeshift flats.

These apartments are not registered with the city and are, therefore, not regulated. Firefighters estimate that as many as 80 percent of the homes in Queens are illegally subdivided. Needless to say, landlords, tenants, developers, brokers and contractors operate in these markets. They rely on evading, manipulating, and breaking laws and regulations to allow these markets to function. By necessity, they also have to rely on extra-legal means to enforce some of their contractual arrangements or resolve their disputes.

An Alternative Model

To understand how land markets operate, we need a “lens” that captures a wider array of rules and market arrangements. We need to examine not only what constitutional, statutory and common laws permit, but also what social norms and conventions permit. We need to go beyond property rights to include the range of property interests that are not necessarily based in law. We also need to go beyond the formal means of contracting and enforcement to include informal means based on ethnic, territorial and associational networks. This approach amounts to an alternative framework (see Figure 2) for understanding market actors’ expectations about the ability to use, develop, transfer and derive income from land.

The wider lens approach to market institutions also allows us to shift emphasis from institutional forms to institutional substance. The important question is not whether a particular institution (such as a land registry) exists, but rather how information about land and housing markets is provided, how risk is reduced, and how enforcement is made effective.

Omar Razzaz is Ford International Assistant Professor in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He previously worked at the World Bank on property rights under transition in Eastern Europe, the Middle East and Africa.

References

Bruni, Frank, with Deborah Sontag. “Behind a Suburban Facade in Queens, A Teeming, Angry Arithmetic,” The New York Times, October 8, 1996, p. A1.

Razzaz, Omar. “Contestation and Mutual Adjustment: The Process of Controlling Land in Yajouz, Jordan,” Law and Society Review 28, no. 1. 1994.

“Examining Property Rights and Investment in Informal Settlements: The Case of Jordan,” Land Economics, November 1993.

World Bank, “Regional Study: Farm Restructuring and Land Tenure in Reforming Socialist Economies: A Comparative Analysis of Eastern and Central Europe,” 1994. Prepared by Euroconsult/Center for World Food Studies, Washington, DC.