The state of Bosnia and Herzegovina continues its long process of reconstruction and reconciliation, four years after the November 1995 signing of the Dayton Peace Accords, which marked the end of a three-and-one-half-year war. Under the terms of the Accords, the state was set up within the original borders of what had been the Yugoslav Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but was divided into two largely independent entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Federation) and the Serb Republic (Republika Srpska). Sub-entity levels of government include cantons and municipalities in the Federation and municipalities in the Republika Srpska.
The task of rebuilding a country ravaged by war is never an easy one. International donor organizations have dedicated large amounts of human and financial resources to the cause, greatly assisting in the development of new government institutions and rebuilding the economy. One of the many challenges facing the country is ensuring that there are sufficient resources available to carry out necessary governmental functions. Of particular concern are service responsibilities and infrastructure needs, including reconstruction, which are straining the already limited budgets of the municipalities.
The Lincoln Institute, the World Bank and the United States Treasury have been involved in a joint project that provides assistance to cantonal and municipal governments in Bosnia and Herzegovina as they explore ways to enhance existing revenues and identify new revenue sources. A number of revenue-generating ideas have been discussed, and one option under serious consideration is an area-based property tax.
Ad Valorem vs. Area-based Tax Systems
Ideally, a property tax system should be ad valorem based in order to promote vertical and horizontal equity in the overall tax system. However, an ad valorem system has a number of administrative complexities that limit its full adoption, especially in developing and transitional economies. An efficient and effective ad valorem property tax system requires a functioning market for property, a network of professional appraisers, substantial amounts of exogenous data, and a sophisticated administrative infrastructure. Because Bosnia and Herzegovina is both a transitional and a post-war economy, these necessary elements are not readily available.
The country does not have a robust market for property, although a real estate market is beginning to emerge around the capital city of Sarajevo. A weekly gazette advertises available properties, but the number is limited and the transactions that do occur tend to be cash or barter-based. An initiative to privatize residences and businesses promises to stimulate the supply of privately held property, ultimately increasing the pool of available properties for real estate transactions. However, the privatization effort does not involve “arms-length” transactions because prices are being established by administrative fiat.
Currently no professional appraisal training is available in the country, but it is a necessary condition for a properly functioning ad valorem system of property taxation. Even if such a system is not adopted, training is still needed, as tax authorities administer the tax on non-movables that has been adopted recently in a few cantons. This tax is similar to the property transaction tax used in various states in the U.S. To assure that the sales price being reported by the seller is reasonable, an appointed committee of citizens is asked to validate it. Ideally these citizens would receive training in appraisal techniques before embarking on their duties.
Efficient and effective administration of an ad valorem property tax system requires an extensive administrative infrastructure and substantial amounts of exogenous data. Neither the infrastructure nor the data, such as financial information, cost of construction and mortgage information, are readily available. Therefore, instituting an ad valorem property tax system in Bosnia and Herzegovina would be very costly and would require a substantial amount of lead time to begin collecting the necessary data and to build the required infrastructure.
However, there are at least three property-based alternatives that are appropriate for developing and transitional economies and are worthy of consideration in this case. The first alternative is a flat fee on occupiers/owners of land and/or improvements with no adjustments for size, value or use of the property. A second alternative is an area-based tax that takes into account the size or area of the property, including both land and improvements. The physical area of the land and improvements provides the base for the tax, and the base is multiplied times the rate of the tax, which is generally low. The third alternative is to adjust the aforementioned area-based tax for such factors as the location of the property, its use, and the quality of the improvements on the land.
A hybrid of alternatives two and three-an area-based tax with adjustments for the location and use of the property-seems to make the most sense for Bosnia and Herzegovina, for several reasons:
The Process of “Discovering” Property
For an area-based property tax system to work properly, all property must be discovered. Ideally, discovery would be accomplished by reading digitized cadastral records. However, such information is limited and technological constraints make this approach infeasible at this time.
Both the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska have reasonably good cadastral records considering their 40 years of socialism, the nationalization of property, and the effects of war. The legal cadastral records contain data on legal ownership of property, while the land cadastral records document the size of land. Two key missing components are complete information on improvements to the land and accurate property ownership information, due to the mass dislocations of citizens during the war.
It will take a substantial amount of work to update the cadastral records sufficiently to support an area-based property tax system. In the meantime, it makes sense to use existing information to assist in the identification and discovery of property. Public housing records, which are quite complete and in some instances are computerized, are one source. For example, the Sarajevo Housing Authority has detailed information on the size, quality, amenities and location of publicly owned residential apartments, and its rent collection system is computerized.
Other sources are the gas and electric utilities that must possess information about their customers in order to efficiently and effectively bill them for service. Sarajevo Gas appears to have fairly complete customer records and it makes a serious effort to keep these data files up-to-date. The largest of three electric utilities operating in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Public Enterprise Elektoprivreda BiH, also maintains very good customer records on approximately 560,000 customers, including approximately 60,000 businesses.
These housing, gas and electric records contain a lot of information on property and its owner/occupier, yet no single set of records appears to be sufficient for the level of detail necessary for an efficiently operating property tax system. Given the incomplete information contained in the cadastral records, tax administration officials in Bosnia and Herzegovina are faced with the challenge of developing a data discovery process that can best utilize these existing databases.
An active approach to discovery would require occupants to provide the necessary information to the taxing authorities. The reason that occupants rather than owners should be enlisted in this task is because land and property ownership records are incomplete and inaccurate in many parts of the country. The first step would be to develop a form that asks for the name of the occupant, a cadastral identification number, the location of the property, the area of the land, the size of improvements to the land, and the use of the land. In the Federation, it makes sense for the cantons, in cooperation with the municipalities, to develop these records, whereas in the Republika Srpska, municipalities most likely would do this with assistance from the entity-level government.
The second step would involve collecting this information. Asking occupants to fill out the form voluntarily would require a public information campaign explaining why the information is needed, how to comply with the request, and the penalties associated with non-compliance. Occupants would be encouraged to pick up the forms from the local cadastral office, complete them, and return them. A second approach would be to prepare a list of known properties using existing cadastral, housing, and gas and electric utility records, and then either hand deliver or mail the property record form to the occupants.
Once the municipalities have compiled the property information, it should be audited for accuracy and completeness by comparing information on the forms with similar information contained in the records of the electric and gas utilities. In many cases this comparison could be performed electronically. Then a manual comparison could be done with housing and cadastral records. The result will be a list of properties and occupants who have failed to comply with the request for property record information. Non-compliers could be sent a reminder of their responsibility to comply, and in extreme cases of non-compliance, individual visits to the property can be conducted.
Revenue Potential and Administrative Challenges
Despite the presence of property-based taxes in Bosnia and Herzegovina, officials at the cantonal and municipal levels of government do not fully appreciate the revenue potential of area-based property taxes. However, these taxes have the potential to generate sizable amounts of revenue, relative to current local budgets, and eventually produce more than one percent of gross domestic product (See Table 1).
There also are sizable administrative challenges associated with the implementation of such a tax. Foremost is the development of a legal and administrative framework that will ensure uniformity, an important criterion for any property tax system. Fortunately, the current government system is designed to promote uniformity because the Constitution of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina grants sole responsibility for fiscal policy to the Federation. Therefore, a framework law, outlining the methodology for determining the property tax base and the range of allowable tax rates, and authorizing cantons to pass enabling legislation for municipalities to levy the tax, should be prepared at the Federation level. Similarly, a framework law would be prepared at the entity level in the Republika Srpska authorizing municipalities to pass enabling legislation.
To overcome any misconceptions regarding the revenue potential from or the administrative challenges posed by the implementation of an area-based system of property taxation, the cosponsors of this research are planning a short training conference in Sarajevo in the late fall. It will provide a common foundation of knowledge about property taxes to officials for both the Federation and the Republika Srpska and foster discussion about the best way to implement an area-based system.
Three pilot studies will then be launched to test whether sufficient property information can be obtained at a reasonable level of effort and cost. In addition, these studies will help determine the roles that various participants at the entity and sub-entity levels of government should play in the discovery phase. If the pilot studies prove successful, a significant step will have been taken toward the introduction of an area-based property tax and diversification of the local government tax base in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
C. Kurt Zorn is professor of Public and Environmental Affairs at Indiana University in Bloomington. Jean Tesche is resident tax advisor for Bosnia and Herzegovina for the United States Treasury, Office of Technical Assistance, in Arlington, Virginia. Gary Cornia is professor at the Romney Institute of Public Management at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah.
The authors have prepared a Lincoln Institute Working Paper available for free on the web titled “The Potential for a Property Tax in Bosnia and Herzegovina.”
Una versión más actualizada de este artículo está disponible como parte del capítulo 3 del libro Perspectivas urbanas: Temas críticos en políticas de suelo de América Latina.
La inversión de fondos públicos en áreas urbanas suele traer como resultado un aumento en el valor de la tierra que solamente beneficia a un grupo pequeño de propietarios privados. En una iniciativa sin precedentes, la ciudad brasileña de Porto Alegre está usando el impuesto a la propiedad como un instrumento para recuperar la plusvalía de los bienes raíces, con lo cual logran frenar la especulación en el mercado inmobiliario y promueven el desarrollo urbano racional.
Contexto económico y social
Porto Alegre es la capital y la ciudad más grande del estado brasileño de Río Grande do Sul, el más meridional del país. Con una población de 1,5 millones de habitantes y aproximadamente 450.000 unidades inmobiliarias en 1994, las autoridades de la ciudad estimaron una escasez de más de 50.000 unidades residenciales. No obstante, los mayores problemas económicos y sociales limitaban la capacidad que tenía la ciudad para proporcionar viviendas a las familias de ingresos bajos y medianos.
Al igual que en muchos países en desarrollo con ciclos económicos inestables, la tierra es uno de los principales medios para acumular riqueza en Brasil. En Porto Alegre, la existencia de grandes predios sin urbanizar cerca del centro de la ciudad propicia la propagación urbana en la periferia. El principal factor causante de esta situación es la especulación con las tierras por parte de propietarios adinerados que poseen grandes extensiones de terreno baldío y esperan un momento favorable para realizar inversiones o vender los terrenos con enormes ganancias.
A medida que las familias de ingresos bajos son empujadas hacia la periferia, su segregación lleva a una exclusión social más acentuada y mayores demandas de servicios. No obstante, la dotación de infraestructura básica, como los servicios de transporte público en rutas largas entre la periferia y los núcleos de comercio, industria o entretenimiento, exige que el gobierno haga inversiones considerables.
Las autoridades de la ciudad de Porto Alegre se habían fijado una meta fundamental de proveer servicios urbanos de calidad para la comunidad de las afueras, entre ellos una infraestructura básica, educación, transporte público, limpieza de calles y seguridad. Sin embargo, un diagnóstico financiero de los ingresos de la ciudad hizo que las autoridades se percataran de la escasez de recursos para tal inversión. En contraste, muchos distritos en áreas más centrales estaban bien dotados de infraestructura, equipos y servicios, y su densidad de población era menor a la prevista en el plan de desarrollo urbano de la ciudad.
Era obvio que la especulación obstaculizaba el desarrollo de la tierra, pero las autoridades gobernantes creían que el ambiente político era favorable para un cambio. Después de un período en el que el gobierno se enfrentó a una inflación crónica en Brasil, se introdujo un programa de estabilización económica en julio de 1994. Antes del plan económico, la inflación anual llegó a alcanzar el asombroso nivel del 7.000 por ciento. A partir de la aplicación del plan, el índice promedio de la inflación mensual osciló entre el 0,7 y el 1,7 por ciento. La medición de la economía en términos del producto interno bruto (PIB) arrojó índices positivos de crecimiento anual a partir de 1993. El gobierno local tenía confianza en que el momento era ideal para recuperar la inversión y las actividades productivas que se habían paralizado durante el anterior período de inflación alta.
En resumen, los siguientes factores fomentaron la iniciativa de Porto Alegre de usar el impuesto a la propiedad como instrumento para simultáneamente recuperar la plusvalía de la tierra, refrenar la especulación en el mercado inmobiliario y promover la justicia social y el crecimiento económico:
Medidas gubernamentales
La constitución de Brasil (1988) define el impuesto a la propiedad como un tributo aplicado a la tierra e inmuebles urbanos y especifica que puede utilizarse como un instrumento de las políticas urbanas a fin de promover un uso racional de la tierra que genere beneficios sociales para toda la comunidad. Esta disposición permitió que Porto Alegre emprendiera las siguientes acciones:
Efectividad de la iniciativa
La legislación fue promulgada a finales de 1993 y el gobierno comenzó a aplicarla en 1994. La propuesta contó con el apoyo de los miembros del Ayuntamiento, tanto los pertenecientes al partido de gobierno como los de la oposición; esta instancia tiene la responsabilidad de aprobar las decisiones en materia de legislación municipal.
A la fecha de octubre de 1997 la iniciativa no ha dado los resultados esperados. Sólo se han desarrollado cinco de los 120 predios vacantes. Los propietarios de 50 inmuebles están pagando el impuesto a la propiedad con una tasa de aumento progresivo. Tres de las propiedades fueron eliminadas de la lista porque habían sido incluidas incorrectamente desde un principio debido a registros inexactos sobre sus características físicas.
No se ha descrito el estado de desarrollo de las 62 propiedades restantes. Algunas pertenecen a terratenientes acaudalados y políticamente influyentes que apelaron ante el Tribunal Supremo contra la constitucionalidad de las medidas aplicadas por el gobierno de la ciudad. De hecho, dos terratenientes (A y B) que poseen casi el 44 por ciento de los terrenos baldíos están apelando y otros terratenientes aparentemente están a la espera de la decisión judicial para tomar sus propias decisiones. (Véase el cuadro.)
Solamente será posible evaluar la efectividad que ha tenido la iniciativa del impuesto a la propiedad en Porto Alegre después de que se conozcan las decisiones judiciales sobre la materia, pero otros beneficios cruciales derivados de la experiencia ya han garantizado su éxito. La legislación ha dado lugar a un debate intenso en el ámbito nacional y local sobre los derechos políticos y privados, los derechos de propiedad y los intereses públicos. La experiencia también ha servido como ejemplo para que otras autoridades gobernantes tomen conciencia de la responsabilidad que tienen de fomentar el uso racional de las tierras urbanas.
En Brasil, los factores culturales y económicos parecen seguir propiciando la especulación con la tierra, en detrimento de las actividades productivas, y la dificultad para establecer límites entre los intereses públicos y los derechos privados es, sin duda, compleja. No obstante, los esfuerzos iniciales realizados en Porto Alegre representan un paso decisivo hacia el control de la especulación privada y el fomento del desarrollo urbano responsable. Otras iniciativas similares en otros lugares ahora tienen mayores posibilidades de convertirse en alternativas viables para lograr justicia en la distribución de los recursos públicos con ventajas sociales para la comunidad.
Claudia M. De Cesare trabaja para la Municipalidad de Porto Alegre y está postulada para cursar un doctorado en el Centre for the Built and Human Environment, de la Universidad de Salford, Inglaterra.
Una versión más actualizada de este artículo está disponible como parte del capítulo 1 del libro Perspectivas urbanas: Temas críticos en políticas de suelo de América Latina.
En los últimos años, el Instituto Lincoln ha venido colaborando con el programa de becas Loeb, el cual tiene sede en la Escuela de Posgrado en Diseño de la Universidad de Harvard. Este programa se inició en 1970 gracias a la generosidad de John L. Loeb, egresado de Harvard, con la finalidad de permitir que profesionales de mediana trayectoria cursaran estudios independientes y adquirieran herramientas adicionales dirigidas a la reactivación del medio ambiente natural y urbano. Los becarios de Loeb para el período 2001-2002 hicieron un viaje de fin de año a Cuba a mediados de junio, que incluía una estancia de dos días en Santiago de Cuba, cuatro en La Habana y un recorrido adicional desde esta última hasta Trinidad, con paradas en algunos destinos intermedios.
Con sus fachadas neoclásicas, adoquines blancos, nubes caribeñas y tonos pasteles, Trinidad se ha detenido en el tiempo como una postal de acuarela. Puesto que el patrimonio arquitectónico de Cuba es el núcleo de un creciente interés internacional y no está amenazado por las oleadas de nuevas construcciones, el futuro del pasado parece estar a salvo. Por su parte, el futuro en sí mismo es mucho más difícil de hallar. Mientras nuestro grupo de becarios de Loeb buscaba indicios en tres ciudades y localidades de la provincia, descubrimos que pese al estancamiento económico y la tensión política internacional los cubanos trabajan con esmero por un futuro que sólo pertenece a ellos.
La afluencia de dólares provenientes del turismo y una férrea campaña de preservación cubana han comenzado a rescatar las riquezas de La Habana Vieja de las garras del descuido no intencionado. Después de por lo menos una experiencia negativa con una nueva construcción, la Oficina del Historiador de la Ciudad –encargada de coordinar la impresionante restauración y renovación mayor de La Habana Vieja– todavía trata de resolver el problema de integrar lo nuevo con lo histórico. Una manera de abordar el problema es estudiar minuciosamente el diseño de edificaciones que ocupan una manzana. Caminamos por un estacionamiento grande de estructura moderna dentro de La Habana Vieja que será reconstruido para convertirlo en un edificio de uso múltiple, con un estacionamiento adyacente, según un diseño que busca reproducir la escala y algunos rasgos monumentales del convento colonial que una vez ocupaba el lugar.
Aunque se está reubicando a algunos residentes en la misma zona y otras partes, muchos regresan a sus hogares después de que los barrios son rehabilitados.
Considerado ahora como un modelo para otras iniciativas dirigidas a financiar la rehabilitación de otros distritos de la ciudad, la renovación de La Habana Vieja se fundamenta en un sistema de impuestos y empresas conjuntas que comprende ingresos provenientes de empresas privadas que se benefician del turismo generado por la restauración. La Oficina del Historiador maneja un presupuesto anual de 50 millones de dólares que se divide entre la construcción y la asistencia social a los cubanos que residen dentro de los límites de la zona de rehabilitación. Esto podría interpretarse como un sistema de “recuperación de plusvalías”, tema que suscita gran interés en el Instituto Lincoln.
Julio César Pérez, arquitecto cubano, urbanista y defensor de la planificación con base en la comunidad, era uno de los integrantes del grupo de becarios de Loeb. Gracias a la perspectiva particular que tiene por ser profesional local, mostró a nuestro grupo algunos de sus ejemplos favoritos del rico legado de la arquitectura prerrevolucionaria art deco y moderna de La Habana. Joyas de cinco pisos de altura se destacan en medio del variopinto paisaje urbano de La Habana central, que también incluye el Edificio Focsa de 28 pisos, con sus 375 unidades de apartamentos, construido en el ocaso del gobierno de Batista.
A los talones de las manzanas de viviendas y casinos con estilo internacional de los años 1950, la revolución implantó su propia forma de uso revisado del suelo. Julio contó la historia de un partido de golf que jugaron el Che Guevara y Fidel Castro en los vastos campos del antiguo Habana Country Club para celebrar la revolución. Según la leyenda, se preguntaron: “¿cómo podemos darle un buen uso a este terreno?” Los resultados de su conversación son las muy grandilocuentes y en su mayoría inconclusas Escuelas Nacionales de Arte diseñadas por Ricardo Porro, Vittorio Garratti y Roberto Gottardi. La postura de estas edificaciones es deliberadamente indiferente a la casa club o al plan del campo de golf; el área abierta es tratada como si fuera una enorme pradera en medio de territorio virgen. Está previsto un proyecto de restauración de los edificios, que se ha complicado más debido a la inestabilidad de las fundaciones y los problemas hidrológicos.
Julio también identificó ejemplos más recientes de construcciones de grandes dimensiones en La Habana, como son el Hotel Meliá Cohíba con su voluminoso arco incorporado y el Miramar Trade Center, un centro comercial (con transacciones en dólares) al otro lado de la calle. Además de ser fracasos de diseño, estos costosos proyectos no logran captar la relación del sitio con el mar ni la posibilidad de crear un nuevo género arquitectónico en un distrito en desarrollo.
Con el estancamiento de la economía y de las relaciones internacionales en los años 1990, el arquitecto y planificador cubano Miguel Coyula y sus colegas han utilizado el tiempo y los materiales que tienen a su alcance para adoptar un enfoque más cuidadoso del uso y desarrollo del suelo. Mientras en todo el mundo hay un surgimiento acelerado y avasallante de ciudades verticales de acero y vidrio, en La Habana se construye una de las maquetas de mayor escala en el mundo con cajas viejas de habanos. Esta asombrosa ciudad en miniatura fue concebida como herramienta para la planificación y asidero para los esfuerzos del Grupo para el Desarrollo Integral de la Capital (GDIC), que ha asesorado al gobierno municipal en asuntos de planificación urbana desde 1988.
La maqueta 1:1000 de toda La Habana ha ido creciendo por piezas exactas durante la mayor parte de la última década y actualmente ocupa 112 metros cuadrados, es decir, aproximadamente una cuarta parte de una cancha de baloncesto. Se encuentra en un pabellón especialmente diseñado iluminado con luz natural en el área de Miramar, cercano al centro de la ciudad, donde los visitantes ocasionales pueden circular cómodamente alrededor de la maqueta y verla desde los niveles superiores de acceso con rampas. En la base topográfica de madera hay colocados modelos a escala de prácticamente todas las estructuras de la ciudad. Cada edificio está codificado por un color que indica el desarrollo urbano en cada período histórico: colonial, moderno prerrevolucionario (1900 a 1958) y posrevolucionario.
Miguel describe un proyecto de construcción, un edificio alto para el Comité Estatal de Colaboración Económica (CECE), que fue cancelado porque con la maqueta se pudo ver claramente que era desproporcionado para el resto de la arquitectura del centro de La Habana. La decisión parece haber sido un hito ya que se trataba de un proyecto real y también ha sido ejemplo de la determinación de construir con conciencia por el medio ambiente –pese a las presiones para dar cabida a inversionistas foráneos en una Cuba necesitada de ingresos–.
La misión fundamental del GDIC se asemeja mucho a la que se plantean los planificadores estadounidenses para el urbanismo dentro de las grandes ciudades: comenzar por los vecindarios. El grupo ha realizado una serie de “talleres integrales de transformación del barrio” ofrecidos a los residentes locales y dirigidos por diseñadores y planificadores profesionales, preferentemente que habiten en la misma área. Estos proyectos se inscriben en la misma tendencia del movimiento internacional de diseño comunitario, una tradición vinculada a los Estados Unidos y surgida hace 45 años en la cual los diseñadores trabajan directamente para el beneficio de los residentes de un área determinada. Desde que la depresión económica sobrevenida en los años 1990 después de la disolución de la Unión Soviética y el bloqueo impuesto por los Estados Unidos comenzaron a tener efectos realmente adversos en Cuba, estos talleres han cobrado gran importancia. Han conjugado la planificación y el desarrollo económico en un nuevo contexto local, en el que los vecindarios emprenden diversos proyectos, como son los cultivos urbanos y la manufactura de materiales de construcción a partir del reciclaje de escombros.
Los talleres de transformación del barrio y otras iniciativas similares llevadas a cabo en los últimos 20 años han contribuido a crear un puente entre el precepto revolucionario cubano de igualdad de tratamiento para todos y el precepto humano básico de tomar decisiones sobre la familia, la comunidad y la vida cotidiana. Otro ejemplo lo constituye el proyecto Arquitectos de la Comunidad, una modalidad de diseño comunitario a cargo de un sector cívico nacional que participa en la construcción urbana y la planificación ambiental, además de ofrecer servicios asequibles de diseño para familias individuales. Basada en las teorías del arquitecto argentino Rodolfo Livingston, la práctica fomenta una relación directa entre el usuario y el arquitecto, a la vez que se incorpora en cada proyecto de construcción el concepto de sostenibilidad y sensibilidad contextual. Julio trabajó con el grupo durante cinco años antes de irse a Harvard y presentó una ponencia junto con Kathleen Dorgan, también becaria de Loeb, en la conferencia de la Asociación de Escuelas y Facultades de Arquitectura celebrada en la primavera pasada. Como defensor de un uso más humano y sensato del suelo y del diseño urbano en su país, Julio se cuenta entre un grupo de arquitectos cubanos preocupados por los valores tradicionales del oficio y el diseño idóneo para el medio ambiente.
Con la existencia de esfuerzos como éstos, tenemos esperanza para que en el futuro la construcción se fundamente en una calibración cuidadosa de relaciones proporcionadas y bien reflexionadas entre las edificaciones y los rasgos naturales del entorno, así como la comodidad y placer de los usuarios. El desafío radica en encontrar medios económicos y normativos para apoyar una modalidad apropiada de construcción. Hasta ahora, el estado ha mantenido el control sobre el uso del suelo gracias a su condición de propietario directo y casi exclusivo y ha hecho negociaciones de arrendamiento con algunos inversionistas privados y foráneos a través de una red delicada y sumamente frágil de fórmulas económicas y jurídicas para valorar los terrenos en cuestión. A medida que la economía se hace más dependiente de los recursos provenientes del exterior, aumenta la probabilidad de que estos arrendamientos devengan en transacciones más predecibles y transparentes. Tal vez no tardarán en llegar las ventas de tierras y la aplicación de mayores impuestos.
Con la llegada de inversiones extranjeras y las presiones para una apertura aún mayor, habrá plena oportunidad de que el futuro esté constreñido por decisiones sobre el uso del suelo impulsadas por los márgenes de ganancias de organizaciones distantes, lo que sería una lamentable añadidura a la carga histórica de Cuba. Porque, a pesar de la belleza de sus paisajes naturales y urbanos, Cuba es un mapa de victimización: a causa del colonialismo, de la flagrante explotación económica, de la confrontación revolucionaria y del brutal desarrollo al estilo soviético.
Los becarios de Loeb captaron una perspectiva general de un nacionalismo intenso construido sobre una cultura profunda y diversa, una historia cosmopolita y los logros incuestionables de los últimos 40 años. Cuba es un lugar de grandes penurias y también de enorme potencial, para los cubanos mismos y para el resto del mundo. Esperamos que el futuro no albergue solamente explotación y degradación cultural cuando finalmente caigan las barreras para el comercio y el viaje internacional. También esperamos demostrar que Cuba es un lugar para aprender de los errores del pasado –los suyos y los nuestros– y para descubrir lo que es posible cuando la gente tiene libertad para proteger, respetar y mejorar su entorno.
Jack Huddleston is professor of urban and regional planning and is affiliated with the Gaylord Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He received his Ph.D. in economics from Oklahoma State University and worked as chief economic development planner and chief of local fiscal policy analysis for the State of Wisconsin prior to joining the university. He teaches planning methods and financial planning in the graduate planning program at Madison and is a faculty member in the land resources, water resources management, and energy analysis and policy programs within the Gaylord Nelson Institute. His recent research has focused on applied local government finance issues in the U.S. and the former Soviet Union; energy subsidy schemes in the Dominican Republic and Indonesia; and watershed management and sustainable development in western Mexico.
Land Lines: What do planners need to know about local budgeting, and why?
Jack Huddleston: Planners tend to think narrowly within the boundaries of the functional or physical areas for which they plan. For example, planners charged with preparing and implementing land use plans often are mainly concerned with forecasting land use needs, reconciling land use conflicts, and developing and administering implementation tools such as zoning ordinances. They are not overly concerned with such facts as over the last decade the city’s tax base has been growing at only one percent per year, city spending has been growing by three percent per year, and the city’s bond rating has slipped from Aa to B. The thinking is, “planners plan; others budget.”
Arguably, planners have more impact on the fiscal health of cities and regions than any other civil servant or elected official. They set the path for tax base growth and local government spending patterns far into the future. The things planners do on a daily basis—land use planning, transportation planning, environmental planning, social services planning and so forth—directly affect local government budgets.
When planners approve development on the urban fringe, for example, they have just affected economic conditions throughout the region. Decisions to approve commercial rather than industrial development have similar impacts. The final development project will determine the specific impact on local government revenues and spending, but the decisions made by planners set the direction and relative dimensions of the tax base and local government spending impacts that will occur later. Thus, it is important that planners understand what the local government budget represents, how it is composed, and how it changes over time if they are to understand how their activities affect local budgets.
LL: What kinds of direct impacts can planners have on the community budgeting process?
JH: The local budget serves both existing development, such as current residents, businesses, churches, commuters and visitors, and new development. Public revenues from property, sales and income taxes and user charges from existing activities are relatively stable over time, after adjusting for the impacts of inflation. Similar stability exists for local government spending to support existing activities.
Planners have their greatest impact on local government budgets when they adopt or approve plans for new development. It is here that the dimensions of new tax base growth are determined. It is also here that local government spending patterns are established. Residential development will require new streets and schools; commercial development will require streets, storm water management, and transportation system improvements; and industrial development will require special kinds of fire protection, major shipping services, and so forth. All types of development will involve the exhaustion of excess capacity in existing public infrastructure and require investment in new infrastructure.
LL: How do you get planning board members and planning practitioners to become concerned about and interested in these issues?
JH: There is actually very little need to get planning board members more interested in the fiscal side of planning than they already are. They feel the political pressure to keep taxes low on almost every decision they make. Their concern is largely how to measure the fiscal impacts of their decisions, in terms of both revenues and spending. In addition, they want to know how to evaluate the fiscal impact of their decisions against other goals and constraints, such as economic growth, social justice and fairness, environmental sensitivity, and so forth.
The knowledge/motivation gap for practicing planners is more significant and probably started during their graduate studies and training. Courses dealing with the fiscal side of planning, if available, are often the course taken after all the “useful and fun” courses are completed. After all, planning job listings often announce positions for “land use planners” or “transportation planners,” but few advertise for “financial planners.”
The key to getting practicing planners more interested in the fiscal side of planning is to establish the view that good planning without good finance is largely nonsustainable planning. At the University of Wisconsin-Madison we have included financial planning in the basic toolbox of skills and knowledge we think all planners should command. These skills, which we call intrinsic planning skills, include other tools such as map making, public participation, public speaking and effective communications.
LL: What current trends in local budgeting are relevant to planning goals?
JH: Most of the trends in local budgeting that directly affect attainment of planning goals come from external sources. For example, federal and state governments increasingly are getting out of urban development and redevelopment efforts. The need for such efforts has not diminished and, if anything, has increased, but higher levels of government have decided that such efforts are primarily of local interest. At the same time local governments are being required to fund new programs for efforts such as homeland security and environmental remediation. In general, pressures have been building for ever-increasing spending on the part of local governments.
On the revenue side of the local budget, state statutes limit the amount of revenues that local governments can raise. State governments have preferred reserving the high-yield income tax to fund state government, leaving the property tax as the primary source of funds for local governments. This reliance on the property tax has led to the property tax “revolts” and “restraint movements” that we read about across the country. In general, the sentiment to reduce property tax burdens has led local governments to find alternatives to the property tax, placing more importance on user charges and other locally based financial tools such as tax increment financing.
LL: How can planners address public resistance to property tax increases?
JH: Planners will need to become part planner and part public educator. Citizens value the public goods and services provided by local governments, but they also perceive that the costs of government are getting too high. To some extent there is a disconnect between the value of public goods and services received by local residents and businesses and the need to fund these services. Most of us appreciate the fact that citizenship has a price, but we are more willing to pay when we understand the uses to which public resources are being put and the benefits that will be generated.
This is where the planner as educator comes in. As planners, we often think of our activities as acres of land, dwelling units per acre, traffic flow per hour, or biological oxygen demand of the river [BOD is a measure of water pollution]. These same concepts can be translated into fiscal terms. We need to be able to talk about how various planning activities will affect the local budget, both in the short run and in the long term.
Comprehensive plans, for example, will affect the property tax base of a community for years into the future. Development patterns will affect how cities and regions spend their limited resources over time. Public infrastructure projects not only affect how and when development will take place, but they also place financial commitments on current and future residents. Sustainable development requires that planners be able to anticipate physical, social and financial needs and constraints, and that they are able to communicate these factors convincingly to interested citizens and decision makers.
LL: How is your work with the Lincoln Institute helping to broaden awareness about fiscal planning?
JH: I am working with Roz Greenstein, co-chair of the Institute’s Department of Planning and Development, on an effort to “train the trainers” in the fiscal dimensions of planning. The concept is to assemble leading scholars and practitioners in the fields of public finance and planning in order to develop educational materials that can be used initially in graduate planning programs and subsequently in professional continuing education programs. The materials will cover the basics of municipal budgeting and finance for planners and will stress both how the activities of planners affect local budgets and how local fiscal conditions affect the activities of planners.
The first year of this effort is producing educational materials on the legal and institutional context for local budgets, the intersection between planning and local budgets, the content and process for developing local government operating and capital budgets, property tax administration and policy, fiscal impact analysis and fiscal impacts of development. This material will be presented and discussed in a workshop at the Lincoln Institute in July 2005. Invited participants include senior and junior faculty and professionals from across the U.S. and Canada. This group will not only test the first phase of these materials, but also will develop the agenda for topics to be covered in future sets of materials.
The goal of the overall effort is to increase planners’ understanding of the fiscal dimensions of planning. In concept, participants in the July workshop will be better able to incorporate fiscal thinking into courses at their respective institutions. Educational materials will also be made available to the broader academic community for the same purposes. The Institute’s investment in this important initiative has the potential to enhance planning education in the near term, but more importantly to change the way planning practitioners think about the work they do on an everyday basis.
Related Publication
Venkatesh, Harini. 2004. Local public finance: A glossary. Working paper. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. http://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/Pub-Detail.asp?id=982
Despite the challenges of overhauling existing policies and implementing a bold agenda for infrastructure investment, the decisive election of a new President on a platform of change presents a real opportunity and sense of momentum for action in Washington.
From 2000 to the end of 2005, the value of U.S. residential land and dwellings increased from $14 trillion to $24 trillion. Until about 2002, housing price increases had followed the normal pattern from the mid-1980s, and housing prices grew along with household incomes. But starting in 2002 housing prices began to grow much faster than incomes in most metropolitan areas.
There were three main causes for this acceleration in housing prices. First, the interest rate for 30-year fixed rate mortgages declined from 7 percent in 2001 to 4.6 percent in 2003, buoying housing prices. Second, starting in the early 2000s mortgage originators began to reduce lending standards and to offer high-risk mortgage instruments such as no-document mortgages and other subprime mortgage instruments. Finally, the national policy to increase home ownership supported the latter trend because increased mortgage availability seemed to increase housing affordability.
These changes led to the rapid growth in mortgages with high loan-to-value ratios and to the approval of borrowers with modest financial reserves. This increasing risk of mortgages was assuaged by the belief that “housing prices could not decline,” which was based on national housing price indices dating back a few decades. Of course, in several metropolitan areas housing prices had declined from 1989 to the mid-1990s, but the national price index had only flattened out in this period.
Nationally, house prices softened in 2006 and fell 30 percent to the present time, while housing starts declined precipitously from 2.27 million in 2006 to 500,000 now, a level well below the typical low point of 1 million starts experienced in the past half dozen recessions. The reduction in housing starts eliminated millions of construction jobs and contributed significantly to the rapid increase in the unemployment rate.
The accompanying financial crisis reduced employment more broadly as part of a severe recession. Mortgage defaults and subsequent foreclosures spiked, caused by the severe housing price decline that left many homeowners “under water” with a mortgage greater than their house value, combined with the loss of household income from unemployment and the tightening of lending standards that made refinancing impossible for many households. From 2006 through 2009, 6 million homes were foreclosed, and 2010 has seen another 2.9 million foreclosure filings. Foreclosure rates are likely to have peaked, and filings in December 2010 were a quarter lower than those in December 2009. But foreclosure rates remain far above historic levels—in 2005 banks foreclosed on about 100,000 homes. The lack of recovery in housing and other construction has in turn been a factor in the slow reduction in unemployment.
House prices may now be stabilizing—national housing prices rose in the second quarter of 2010, but have declined modestly in the third and fourth quarters. This has led some analysts to forecast a possible second round of price declines. In any case, the likely slow decrease in unemployment will continue to restrain income growth and demand for home ownership. Clearly, housing will not lead the economy out of this recession. Needed now is regulatory reform to prevent the repetition of a housing bubble and an inevitable subsequent housing bust and its related financial meltdown.
While some modest steps have been taken in this direction, much remains to be done and the announced reform of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac have increased uncertainty about the course of future mortgage finance. The realization by households that housing price appreciation is not inevitable will likely slow the shift to ownership by younger households and encourage older empty-nesters to move their assets to investments less risky than housing. The resulting growth in rental demand will focus in denser parts of metropolitan areas and give some impetus to smart growth outcomes. Housing demand will be robust only in several years, driven by long-term growth in incomes, population, and household formation.