State trust lands in the Intermountain West could play an important role in the growing market for renewable energy. Congress granted these territories, covering 35 million acres, to states upon their entry to the Union, to support schools and other public institutions. As managers of these state trust lands search for innovative and sustainable ways to lease and sell parcels to generate income, renewables could prove to be a double boon—by supplying clean, sustainable power and providing a strong revenue stream for the public benefit.
All seven states in the Intermountain West—Arizona, Idaho, Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming (figure 1)—are using state trust lands to develop renewables, including wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass projects. Yet the industry has not flourished to its full potential. In 2011, the installed renewable energy production capacity on state trust lands was only 360 megawatts—not enough to power 2 percent of the homes in the region. The $2 million in revenue generated by these sources on state trust lands amounts to less than 1 percent of the $1 billion-plus generated there annually by other means (Berry 2013; WSLCA). Wind energy is experiencing the most activity by far; all the Intermountain West states have leased state trust lands for wind projects, and all have operational wind farms. Although Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah have leased state trust lands for solar operations, only one generation facility is in production on state trust lands in the Intermountain West, in Arizona. Only Utah has a geothermal plant on state trust land, and no states in this region have active biomass facilities on trust lands.
This article will focus on three types of renewable energy production in three states—a wind farm in Montana, geothermal projects in Utah, and solar generation in Arizona—and the conditions, legislation, and other factors that led to successful operations. All three examples demonstrate that these territories offer a largely untapped bounty for this burgeoning, sustainable market; provide learning opportunities across state lines; and help meet growing demand for renewable energy.
Judith Gap Wind Farm, Montana
Judith Gap is Montana’s only operational wind farm on state trust land, straddling private land as well, in the central-eastern part of the state. It has 90 turbines total, each with a capacity of 1.5 megawatts; 13 are on state trust lands, on the leading edge of the wind farm, with a total capacity of 19.5 megawatts. The per-megawatt fee of approximately 2.6 percent of gross receipts brings in about $50,000 per year according to Mike Sullivan of the Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation (DNRC). At the time of construction, there was a one-time installation fee of $20,000 (Rodman 2008).
Bob Quinn, founder of a local wind development company called Windpark Solutions, initiated the project in 2000, when he proposed the idea to a small group including representatives from the local utility, the Montana Department of Environmental Quality, and the DNRC. Quinn says that close collaboration between the developer and personnel in these state agencies was key to successfully siting the project on state trust land. State staff also helped Quinn navigate other difficult challenges including unanticipated delays in the request for proposals (RFP) process required by the state.
After conducting preliminary studies—allowed for one year through a land use license from the DNRC—developers must apply to the DNRC in order to proceed with energy projects. The state then issues a request for proposals (RFP). Applicants with a land use license do not receive preferential treatment. After a successful applicant is identified, the developer must conduct environmental analyses, secure a power purchase agreement with a utility, and determine economic feasibility before signing a lease with the DNRC. Currently, fees for new land use licenses are generally $2 per acre per year. Lease agreement costs for new wind projects include a one-time installation charge of $1,500 to $2,500 per megawatt of installed capacity, and annual fees of 3 percent of gross annual revenues or $3,000 for each megawatt of installed capacity, whichever is greater (Rodman 2008, Billings Gazette 2010).
Lease and Fee Structures
Every state has different leasing systems for renewable energy projects on state trust lands, but they all follow a similar pattern. The process usually starts with a short-term planning lease that allows for exploration and meteorological studies. The construction phase is next, followed by a longer-term production lease. Payments to the trust land management agency usually include a per-acre rent during the planning phase, which may continue into the production phase. There are additional installation charges for equipment, including meteorological towers, wind turbines, solar collectors, structures, and other infrastructure. During the production phase, the fee is typically based either on the installed capacity or the gross revenues of the generation facility.
Since Judith Gap was completed in 2005, several wind farms have proposed development on state trust lands in Montana, but none have reached the production phase. These include the Springdale Wind Energy project—an 80-megawatt wind farm consisting of 44 turbines, 8 of which would be on state trust lands. The DNRC has also leased 3,000 acres near Martinsdale to Horizon Wind Energy for a wind farm with 27 turbines, 7 to 15 of which would be on state trust lands. The Martinsdale wind farm could expand to 100 turbines in the future (MT DNRC).
In order to make state trust lands more attractive to these and other renewable energy developers, the DNRC would benefit from a more streamlined process. Developers working on state trust lands in Montana have cited struggles with timing, financing, environmental mitigation, cooperation from power buyers, and transmission (Rodman 2008). According to Quinn, Judith Gap succeeded in part due to dedication and close collaboration between agency personnel and the energy developer. In the future, the DNRC may need to assign personnel to renewable energy projects in order to guide developers through the process. The DNRC could also attract projects by granting land use license holders preferential status in the RFP process and by opening up bidding faster. Quinn notes that evaluating bids according to performance rather than price alone would improve the system.
Geothermal Energy, Utah
Geothermal energy is a potentially constant power source, offsetting fluctuations from intermittent renewables such as wind and solar. However, it’s also technically complex and expensive—and thus rare on state trust lands in the Intermountain West. Utah is currently the only state in the region with active geothermal facilities on state trust land. Measured by land area, geothermal is Utah’s largest renewable energy supply, with approximately 100,000 acres leased on state trust lands. There are currently two geothermal energy plants in production, generating revenue of $200,000 to $300,000 per year. For geothermal projects, the State and Institutional Trust Lands Administration (SITLA), which manages state trust lands in Utah, charges 2.25 percent of electricity sales for the first 5 or 10 years, and 3.5 percent thereafter.
PacifiCorp’s 34-megawatt Blundell plant, on a mix of federal, state, and private territory, was the state’s first, built in 1984. Blundell taps into an underground reservoir that is 3,000 feet deep, more than 500° F, and pressurized at 500 pounds per square inch. A well brings the hot, high-pressure water to the surface, where it powers a steam turbine. The Blundell plant has two units, a 23-megawatt unit built in 1984 and an 11-megawatt unit completed in 2007.
The newer Raser plant in Beaver County has been less successful. Raser originally planned to build a 15-megawatt operation using a new, modular technology produced by United Technologies, says John Andrews, SITLA associate director. The company aimed to cut costs and development time by exploring the geothermal resource while constructing the generation facility—instead of fully developing geothermal wells first, then building the power plant later. Unfortunately, the geothermal resource fell short of expectations and could not support a 15-megawatt operation. With limited income, Raser could not cover debts and declared bankruptcy in 2011. The plant continues to run at limited capacity (Oberbeck 2009).
The experience at Raser shows that the costs of geothermal development continue to be daunting and that it’s worthwhile to fully characterize the available geothermal resource prior to constructing generation facilities, although that additional step is costly and time-consuming. Future technological advances may help to cut the costs and time required for geothermal development, but, given the current state of technology, geothermal projects still require significant upfront outlays.
For renewable energy development, SITLA responds to applications as they are received; they can also offer lands through a request for proposals or a competitive sealed bid process (Rodman 2008). The state has mapped renewable energy zones, but the task of finding locations and proposing renewable energy projects devolves to developers.
Utah faces other challenges to all forms of renewable energy development on trust lands. Because of the high proportion and pattern of federally owned territory, national agencies sometimes take the lead on energy development projects. According to Andrews, the absence of an RPS in Utah is another drawback, leaving local utilities without a state mandate to supply renewable energy.
Even without an RPS, however, Utah is geographically well-positioned to export energy to other states—particularly to population centers on the west coast. Although transmission can be a barrier in some parts of the state, transmission capacity is available between Utah and southern California. What’s more, developers can tap an array of renewable resources—wind, solar, and geothermal. SITLA would benefit from marketing trust lands within renewable energy zones to potential developers and by offering reduced rates for renewable energy projects within these areas.
Solar Developments in Arizona
Even in Arizona—the sunniest state in the U.S., according to the National Weather Service—the solar industry faces several obstacles on state trust lands. The only active solar facility on state trust lands, the Foothills Solar Plant opened on 400 acres in Yuma County in April 2013, when the first 17 megawatts came online. An additional 18 megawatts are scheduled to go online in December 2013. Once it’s fully operational, the facility will serve 9,000 customers. The 35-year lease will generate $10 million for state trust lands beneficiaries, and most of that money will fund public education.
The slow development of the solar industry on trust lands mirrors a larger trend seen nationwide. In 2010, only 0.03 percent of the nation’s energy came from solar projects, while 2.3 percent came from wind (www.eia.gov). Solar projects usually require exclusive use of a site—putting them at an even greater disadvantage on state trust lands, where many acres are already leased for agriculture, grazing, or oil and gas production. Wind projects, by contrast, can co-exist with other land uses. Solar projects also require large tracts—as many as 12 acres per megawatt (Culp and Gibbons 2010)—whereas wind facilities have a relatively small footprint. And, although prices are dropping, solar generation facilities can be very expensive.
Despite these drawbacks, there are ways in which solar development is well-suited to state trust lands. For starters, these territories are untaxed and owned free and clear; unburdened by the carrying costs that private owners might have, state trust land management agencies have an advantage for holding and maintaining renewable energy projects. Some solar developers have found state trust land attractive because they can work with one owner for very large tracts. Solar generation is also well-suited to previously disturbed sites, such as old landfills and abandoned agricultural areas, which may include trust lands. Near urban areas, state trust lands slated for future development could be used for solar generation in the interim; after the solar leases expire, the grounds could be developed for urban uses (Culp and Gibbons 2010).
State-level RPS and tax incentives could also encourage solar development. Some states provide up to 25 percent investment tax credits, property tax exemptions, and standard-offer contracts on solar, guaranteeing a long-term market for solar output.
As one of the largest landowners in the state, with several large, consolidated parcels, the Arizona State Land Department (ASLD) would do well to position itself as an attractive partner for the renewable energy industry (Wadsack 2009). The ASLD is taking steps in the right direction by developing a GIS-based renewable energy mapping system to analyze state trust lands for general suitability for solar production, based on avoiding critical wildlife habitat and wilderness areas, and minimizing distance to roads, transmission, and load. But it must follow up and market the most suitable areas for renewables (Culp and Gibbons 2010) and facilitate the process for developers, who can be deterred by complex leasing structures, requirements for public auctions, and required environmental and cultural analyses (Wadsack 2009). The more the agency can build capacity to help developers through this process, the more the renewable energy industry might flourish on state trust lands. For example, the department could offer long-term leases, expedite land sales, or develop a reduced-cost, revenue-sharing lease system specifically tailored for renewable energy development.
General Recommendations for Montana, Utah, and Arizona
Leasing renewable energy on state trust lands is complicated. Each state has a unique set of political, environmental, and economic circumstances that makes it difficult to determine any one best method for all. However, the accomplishments, problems, and solutions detailed in the examples above provide some general recommendations for success.
At the state land trust agency level:
At the state level:
Federal policies play a considerable role as well. Production tax credits in particular have spurred U.S. renewable energy deployment in recent decades. Likewise, federal investment tax credits for renewable energy—which provide developers with a tax credit during the planning and construction phases—have helped the renewable energy industry grow in recent years, even when the national economy was in recession. Finally, there have been several proposals for a federal-level renewable portfolio standard, although researchers disagree whether this type of policy would interfere with existing state-level RPS policies, which have proven extremely effective.
Renewable energy offers state trust land managers an opportunity to diversify their revenue stream to benefit the public good. For the most part, wind and transmission projects can be co-located with pre-existing leases for grazing, agriculture, oil, and gas. Solar projects could have great potential in previously disturbed sites or areas with little other value. Where geothermal resources are available, they offer consistent power that can offset intermittent sources like wind or solar. Technological advances could help bring down prices for renewables, particularly solar, geothermal, and biomass. As our energy demands grow, state trust lands are poised to play an important role in the growing renewable energy industry.
This article was adapted from the Lincoln Institute working paper, “Leasing Renewable Energy on State Trust Lands,” available online here: http://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/dl/2192_1518_Berry_WP12AB1.pdf.
About the Author
Alison Berry is the energy and economics specialist at the Sonoran Institute, where her work focuses on land use issues in a changing West. She holds a bachelor’s degree in biology from the University of Vermont and a master’s degree in forestry from the University of Montana. Her work has been published in the Wall Street Journal, the Journal of Forestry, and the Western Journal of Applied Forestry, among other publications. Contact: aberry@sonoraninstitute.org.
Resources
Berry, Jason, David Hurlbut, Richard Simon, Joseph Moore, and Robert Blackett. 2009. Utah Renewable Energy Zones Task Force Phase I Report. http://www.energy.utah.gov/renewable_energy/docs/mp-09-1low.pdf.
Billings Gazette. 2010. Wind farm developers eye school trust land. April 22. http://billingsgazette.com/news/state-and-regional/montana/article_14bfb038-4e0a-11df-bc99-001cc4c002e0.html.
Bureau of Land Management. 2011. Restoration Design Energy Project. http://www.blm.gov/az/st/en/prog/energy/arra_solar.html.
Culp, Peter, and Jocelyn Gibbons. 2010. Strategies for Renewable Energy Projects on Arizona’s State Trust Lands. Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Working Paper WP11PC2. https://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/dl/1984_1306_CulpGibbon%20Final.pdf.
Montana Department of Natural Resources. 2011. Montana’s Trust Lands. Presented at the Western States Land Commissioners Association annual meeting. Online: http://www.glo.texas.gov/wslca/pdf/state-reports-2011/wslca-presentation-mt-2011.pdf accessed November 23, 2011.
Oberbeck, Steven. 2009. Utah geothermal plant runs into cold-water problems. Salt Lake Tribune. September 17. And Bathon, Michael. 2011. Utah’s Raser Technologies files Chapter 11. Salt Lake Tribune. May 2.
Rodman, Nancy Welch. 2008. Wind, wave/tidal, and in-river flow energy: A review of the decision framework of state land management agencies. Prepared for the Western States Land Commissioners Association. http://www.glo.texas.gov/wslca/pdf/wind_wave_tidal_river.pdf.
Wadsack, Karin. 2009 Arizona Wind Development Status Report. Arizona Corporation Commission.
The case of Mexicali, the capital city of the border state of Baja California, Mexico, stands out as a good example of successful property tax reform in the 1990s. In only a few years the local government was able to raise revenues associated with the property tax, as well as strengthen its municipal finances and modernize its cadastral and collection systems. Furthermore, Mexicali carried out this reform by adopting a land value taxation system, the first of its kind in Mexico, and gained the public’s acceptance for these changes. Without ignoring its problems and flaws, this case provides interesting lessons on future property tax reform endeavors in Mexico and other countries.
Economic, Political and Technical Considerations
Accomplishing property tax reform did not always seem to be an easy task in Mexicali or anywhere in Mexico. Since 1983, the local level of government has been responsible for setting up and collecting property taxes, although state authorities kept certain responsibilities. Throughout the 1980s, property tax revenues, and local revenues in general, experienced a severe drop caused by a combination of high inflation rates, economic recession, lack of political interest, and reduced administrative competence of local governments, which preferred to rely on revenue-sharing sources.
In the early 1990s, a clear improvement in the nation’s macro-economic performance made conditions more favorable for change, although political and technical factors reduced the incentives for many state and local governments to embark on fiscal reform. Nevertheless, the federal administration of Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1989-1994) launched an initiative to improve local finances through a cadastre modernization program lead by BANOBRAS (Banco Nacional de Obras y Servicios), a public development bank.
Even before this program and other national policies began to exert an influence on local and state administrations, Mexicali took the lead in property tax reform. Starting in 1989, the newly elected mayor, Milton Castellanos Gout, saw the importance of having strong local finances and wanted to raise revenues at the beginning of his term. He hired a private consulting firm to update cadastral values. The main consultant, Sergio Flores Peña, a graduate in city and regional planning from the University of California at Berkeley, convinced the mayor to change from a mixed-value tax base on land and buildings to a land value system, and to design a mathematical model to calculate land values.
Rather than being attracted by theoretical or ideological beliefs about the advantages of a land value tax, Castellanos was convinced that it would be the easiest and fastest way to raise revenues. He took the political risk of proposing a Municipal Cadastral Committee, including real estate owners’ organizations, professional organizations and citizen representatives.
The results were spectacular in two ways: first, the new tax raised revenues quickly (see Table 1); and second, there was not a single legal or political objection from taxpayers. The increase in revenues from real estate property taxes and property sales, by far the most important source of local revenues, allowed the mayor to launch an important public works program. In the next fiscal year, however, he wanted to loosen his fiscal grip, so he did not pursue land valuation updates and abandoned the mathematical model that was originally created for that purpose.
Opposition to updating land values came from both the Municipal Cadastral Committee and the government officials in charge of the cadastre and valuation office who lacked the technical capability to manipulate the model and feared that their power and control might be weakened by the participation of the private consulting firm. As a result, the mathematical model was abandoned and land values where subsequently defined by a process of negotiation and bargaining between local authorities, elected representatives and the committee. However, the land value taxation system remained as the base to establish land values.
At the same time, the Castellanos administration embarked on a cadastre modernization program with financial resources from the federal government. However, since the mayor saw that his main objective of raising revenues had been achieved, the efforts to modernize the cadastral system became a secondary priority that was not as successful.
In subsequent administrations, the policy towards tax revenues and cadastre modernization varied. The next mayor, Francisco Pérez Tejeda (1992-1995), was a member of the same political party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional, PRI). He experienced a drop in property tax revenue during his first year in office, and taxes only increased at the end of his administration. He abandoned the cadastre modernization program, but maintained the land value taxation system.
The next administration was led by Eugenio Elourdy (1995-1998), a member of the Partido de Acción Nacional (PAN). He was the first opposition party leader in Mexicali, although a member of PAN had governed at the state level from 1989 to 1994. During Elourdy’s term, land values were updated, property tax revenues grew steadily and cadastre modernization was vigorously resumed. The current administration led by Victor Hermosillo (1999-2001) is continuing with cadastre reform.
Assessing the Mexicali Experience
There is no question that the process of fiscal reform has stimulated property tax revenues as the fastest and most important financial source for the city government. Currently, property tax revenues account for more than 50 percent of local municipal revenues. Mexicali is well above the state and national averages for the relative share of property tax revenues to total revenues (15.3 percent in 1995, compared to 8.4 percent at the state level and 10.3 percent at the national level). Local government officials in charge of the cadastre and valuation systems are well prepared with technical expertise and an awareness of the need to conduct permanent reform within the system. Mexicali’s example has already been replicated in the rest of the state of Baja California and in the neighboring state of Baja California Sur.
The Mexicali case offers some important lessons. First, the property tax plays a central role in strengthening local governments, not only for raising sufficient revenues for urban development but also for providing government officials with the skills to organize the tax system in a way that can be sound, legitimate and transparent.
Second, property tax reform requires vision, leadership and, most of all, political will and commitment from the executive. However, successful reform to raise taxes also depends on a sound technical base and acceptance by the general public.
Third, the land value tax proved to be extremely helpful in achieving successful reform at an early stage. It is clear that the rationale for adopting land value taxation had more to do with a pragmatic approach than with theoretical positions or debates over different schools of thought. However, this should not prevent government officials, consultants, scholars and the general public from thoroughly analyzing the diverse consequences of this approach in terms of economic efficiency, equity and administrative management.
Although a land value tax has proven to be successful in the case of Mexicali, it should not be viewed as a panacea for all situations. It is important to recognize that the tax can be of little help without other measures that have to be considered as part of property tax reform, such as cadastre modernization, clear policies on tax rates and public participation.
Finally, cases of property tax reform around the world cannot be viewed as black-and-white, success-or-failure experiences, but rather, like Mexicali, as stories that combine success, flaws and steps backward. Far from being a perfect example of property tax reform, Mexicali is a good learning experience. It shows that changes can take place in a field where very often one thinks that little can be accomplished.
Manuel Perlo Cohen is a researcher at the Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. He received support for this case study from the Lincoln Institute and he has participated in numerous Institute-sponsored courses and seminars throughout Latin America.
Latin America is a region of sharp contrasts in land use: the expansive Amazon forest and growing areas of deforestation; large uninhabited regions and enormous urban concentrations; the coexistence of wealth and poverty in the same neighborhoods. Many of these contrasts derive from land policies established by powerful land interests that are perpetuated because of outdated or distorted data. This heritage is a part of the region’s colonization process that has been characterized by the exploitation and occupation of land at any price.
The first land information system for registering parcels in Latin America was established in 1824 by the Topographic Commission in the Province of Buenos Aires in the Republic of Argentina. Territorial cadastre offices throughout the region now manage public land information systems that register maps and data about the parcels on which taxes are levied and rights are granted to the owners or occupants of the land.
What Is a Cadastre?
A modern cadastre is an integrated database system that holds information on land registration and ownership, physical characteristics, econometric modeling for property valuation, zoning, geographic information systems, transportation, and environmental, socioeconomic and demographic data. Such cadastres represent a holistic planning tool that can be used at the local, regional and national levels to address issues such as economic development, sprawl, poverty eradication, land policy and sustainable community development.
The earliest recorded accounts of property surveys in ancient Egypt used the science of geometry to measure distances. European cadastres later followed this ancient model until advancements led to more fully integrated systems that could be used for fiscal purposes, such as valuation, taxation and legal conveyance, as well as land management and planning. The United States does not have a national cadastral system, but similar municipal processes reflect both the policy and protocol of international cadastre programs.
The International Federation of Surveyors was founded in Paris in 1878 as the Fédération Internationale des Géomètres and is known by its acronym, FIG. This nongovernmental organization represents more than 100 countries and supports international collaboration on surveying through the collection of data on surface and near-surface features of the earth and their representation as a map, plan or digital model. FIG’s work is conducted by 10 commissions that specialize in different aspects of surveying. Commission 7, Cadastre and Land Management, focuses on issues in cadastral reform and multipurpose cadastres; parcel-based land information systems; cadastral surveying and mapping; and land titling, land tenure, land law and registration. For more information, see www.fig.net/figtree/commission7/.
Multipurpose Cadastres
In recent years, the vision of the cadastre as a multipurpose information system has begun to evolve, bringing with it great advances in the quality of land information systems, as well as some problems. The origin of these concerns can be found in the very concept of multipurpose cadastre systems and in the administrative decisions needed for their implementation. A common assumption holds that to implement a multipurpose cadastre it is necessary to expand the alphanumeric databases—including social and environmental data as well as the usual physical (location and shape), economic and legal aspects of the parcel—and to connect this information with a parcel map in a geographical information system (GIS). While this is very important, it is not enough.
Implementation of a multipurpose cadastre implies a change of paradigm for its administration and demands a new land use framework law and new relationships between the public and private sectors. In 1996 Brazil established a biannual National Multipurpose Cadastral Congress that examines its own state-level cadastre programs and those in neighboring countries. Despite the attention devoted to cadastres and the many papers published on the topic since then, there is no evidence of any municipality in which the multipurpose cadastral system is actually working as well as hoped.
According to the literature, the way to make a cadastre truly multipurpose is to integrate all the public and private institutions that are working at the parcel level using a unique identifier, and to define standards for the alphanumeric and cartographic databases. Chile is one of the countries where all the parcels have a common identifier designated by the implementation of the National Territorial Information System, although the system does not yet integrate the alphanumeric cadastral data with maps at the parcel level (Hyman et al. 2003).
Centralization versus Decentralization
The hegemony of the unitary system of government that characterizes most Latin American countries has caused a predominance of centralized cadastres, although this phenomenon also occurs in countries with a federal government. Brazil, for example, recently restructured its National System of Rural Cadastre, which, in spite of the technical advances proposed by Law 10.267/2001, will continue to be administered by an institution of the national government.
In contrast, the decentralization movement in the region aspires to modernize state governments by transferring powers to municipal jurisdictions, including the institutions responsible for land administration. For example, more than half of the states in Mexico still have centralized cadastral data, although some have begun to decentralize by creating municipal systems that are compatible with the state cadastre. A similar situation is occurring in Argentina, where some provincial institutions are beginning to transfer systems and data to the municipalities. Local administrators have an added incentive for assuming responsibility for organizing and maintaining cadastral systems because of the opportunities to collect property taxes and sell maps or databases registered in the local cadastral system to utility companies and other entities in the private sector.
All these good intentions, however, frequently run up against the chronic problem of the scarcity of capable personnel and infrastructure. In some cases decentralization may constitute a problem rather than a solution and it could jeopardize the maintenance and validation of data. For example, the adoption of the decentralized model may lead to the coexistence of extremely detailed and precise cadastres in some locations with practically nonexistent cadastres in other locations. Such discrepancies between adjacent municipalities may create inconsistent land information when it is aggregated at the regional and national levels.
A centralized model, on the other hand, can facilitate the unified design and structuring of the cadastre and guarantee the integration of geodetic and cartographic systems with the identification of parcels. The difficulties in accessing and distributing information for local needs might be solved by using the Internet to organize land data and maps through the central cadastre. Some countries, such as Jamaica, Chile and Uruguay, are beginning to structure their eCadastres in this way. (This term is derived from the eGovernment concept introduced by the World Bank.)
When considering the varying development stages of Latin American cadastres, we can conclude that each jurisdiction must analyze which type of system is most appropriate for its own circumstances. It is worth considering the Common Principles on the Cadastre in the European Union, a document that affirms that “there are no intentions to unify the cadastral systems of the member states; however, there is interest in standardizing products” (Permanent Committee 2003). If it is possible to work with different cadastral systems across Europe, it must be possible to do so within a single country.
Public versus Private Cadastres
After the publication of Cadastre 2014 by the International Federation of Surveyors (FIG), one of the new visions that provoked much discussion was the proposal that the cadastre should be “highly privatized; public and private sectors are working closely together, reducing the control and supervision by the public sector” (Kaufmann and Steudler 1998). For example, in Japan private companies have almost total control of the cadastral base of some cities, whereas in the member states of the European Union the cadastre resides within the government sphere.
In Latin America, cadastres remain primarily in the hands of public institutions; the private sector normally participates in the processes of implementing cartographic updates and information systems, but not in the administration itself. The Mexican municipality of Guadalajara, for example, did a comparative study of costs, concluding that managing the cadastre with its own public employees and equipment would yield a savings of 50 percent in investments, which was confirmed after one year of implementation.
In spite of the positive results obtained from such projects developed entirely within public administrations, the private sector cannot be ignored, particularly in the context of the privatization wave that has hit Latin America in recent years. For example, telephone, water and electric companies need up-to-date land information in the same way as the public institutions. Their common interest in maintaining databases is leading the cadastre offices and the utility companies to work together and share investments, as well as to look for ways to standardize data and define common identifiers for the parcels.
Conclusions
The majority of Latin American cadastral systems are still registering three kinds of data following the traditional economic-physical-legal model: the economic value, the location and shape of the parcel, and the legal relationship between the property and the owner or occupant. However, there is increased interest in utilizing multipurpose information systems. In this transition process, some administrators have decided to implement new cadastral applications based only on technology; evidently, this has not been as successful as they imagined. This incorporation of new technologies must be accompanied by necessary changes in procedures and legislation and by professional training of public employees.
In recent years international institutions such as the World Bank, the Lincoln Institute and many European and American universities have been collaborating to help improve Latin American cadastres. They support educational programs, academic events and concrete projects for implementing reliable and updated land information systems. As the transition to multipurpose cadastres continues, changes will be implemented through a careful revision of relevant legislation, more accessible forms of customer service, stronger collaboration between private and public institutions that generate and use cadastral data, and the application of contemporary international standards. Territorial cadastres in Latin America will become even more efficient and valuable if they generate information that allows the development of projects oriented to fundamental social concerns such as land regularization and identification of vacant land.
Diego Alfonso Erba is professor of advanced GIS applications and digital cartography at UNISINOS (Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos) in São Leopoldo-RS, Brazil, and a visiting fellow of the Lincoln Institute.
References
Hyman, G., C. Perea, D. Rey, and K. Lance. 2003. Encuesta sobre el desarrollo de las infraestructuras nacionales de datos espaciales en América Latina y el Caribe. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). (Survey on the development of national infrastructures of spatial data in Latin America and the Caribbean. International Center for Tropical Agriculture.)
Kaufmann, Jürg, and Daniel Steudler. 1998. Cadastre 2014: A vision for a future cadastral system. Frederiksberg, Denmark: International Federation of Surveyors (FIG). Available at http://www.swisstopo.ch/fig-wg71/cad2014.htm.
Permanent Committee on Cadastre in the European Union. 2003. Common principles on the cadastre in the European Union. Rome. December 3. Available at http://www.eurocadastre.org/.
Durante los últimos ocho años, cada una de nuestras conferencias anuales sobre políticas de suelo ha tocado un tema diferente. En la conferencia del año pasado se analizaron los vínculos cambiantes que existen entre la educación, el suelo y la ubicación a la luz de la creciente importancia de elección de escuela. Como resultado de nuestra conferencia de 2013 “Educación, suelo y ubicación”, edité un libro junto con Daphne A. Kenyon, fellow del Instituto Lincoln, que incluye aportaciones de eminencias académicas provenientes de una variedad de disciplinas de las ciencias sociales de los EE.UU., Chile e Inglaterra.
Cuando los niños asisten a la escuela cerca de sus hogares, se establece un fuerte vínculo entre la ubicación residencial y la calidad de la educación. Dicho vínculo se fortalece cuando las escuelas dependen en gran parte de los fondos provenientes del impuesto municipal sobre la propiedad, tal como ocurre en los Estados Unidos de América. De hecho, al comprar una casa, se puede considerar que una parte de su precio representa el pago de un boleto para ingresar a un sistema educativo en particular. Pero ¿qué ocurre si la elección de la escuela no tiene un vínculo con la elección del lugar de residencia?
En la década de 1960, aproximadamente uno de cada diez niños en edad escolar en los Estados Unidos asistía a una escuela privada. En la actualidad, existen nuevas formas de escolarización entre las que optar: escuelas especializadas “imán” para atraer estudiantes a ciertos campos, escuelas en el distrito o fuera del distrito, escuelas semipúblicas, vales escolares y escolarización en el hogar. Según los datos más confiables disponibles, hoy en día entre un cuarto y un tercio de los niños de edad escolar deciden elegir el tipo de escuela.
Este libro se enfoca en tres aspectos de política. El primero es la segregación racial, étnica y socioeconómica. Dentro del sistema descentralizado de gobiernos locales de los Estados Unidos, gran parte de dicha estratificación resulta evidente. Tal como lo resalta John R. Logan, “el niño blanco promedio asiste a una escuela en la que más del 78 por ciento de los niños es blanco”. El segundo aspecto se refiere a las brechas en el rendimiento académico. Eric A. Hanushek concluye que “las brechas en el rendimiento son sorprendentes”, aun cuando las diferencias en cuanto a las tasas de graduación de escuela secundaria y a los puntajes obtenidos en la Evaluación Nacional de Progreso Educativo entre estudiantes blancos, negros e hispanos han llegado, en cierta manera, a un tipo de convergencia. El tercer aspecto es la falta de igualdad de oportunidades, derivada de la segregación residencial y de las brechas en el rendimiento académico. Tal como lo señalan Elizabeth J. Mueller y Shannon S. Van Zandt, “las oportunidades, ya sea en forma de buenas escuelas o de otros tipos de servicios públicos… no se encuentran distribuidas equitativamente en las diferentes regiones ni tampoco son accesibles para todos”.
El libro está dividido en cuatro secciones. En la primera sección se analiza la bibliografía e incluye un detalle cronológico elaborado por Ellen B. Goldring y Walker Swain que, en líneas generales, muestra los vínculos entre la ubicación residencial y la escuela en los Estados Unidos. En la segunda sección se examinan algunos aspectos relacionados con la organización en distritos escolares y sus finanzas, e incluye una historia económica de la estructura de los distritos escolares elaborada por William A. Fischel, una evaluación del impuesto a la propiedad como fuente clave de financiamiento para la educación desde el jardín de infantes hasta el 12º grado, realizada por Andrew Reschovsky, y un análisis de Henry A. Coleman de las fuentes no tradicionales de financiamiento escolar. En la tercera sección se investigan los efectos de la ubicación de las escuelas especializadas y contiene aportaciones de Robert Bilfulco y John R. Logan, Julia Burdick-Will y Elisabeta Minca, y Stephen Machin y Anne West, quienes analizan las escuelas académicas (el equivalente en Inglaterra a las escuelas especializadas). En la cuarta sección se analizan casos en los que la educación y la ubicación no tienen ningún vínculo, como es el caso de la escolarización en los hogares en Virginia, analizada por Luke C. Miller.
Este libro presenta evidencias (particularmente en el capítulo de Eric J. Brunner) que introducir la posibilidad de elegir una escuela reduce tanto los recargos de precios de las viviendas asociados con su ubicación en un distrito escolar de alta calidad como la segregación residencial. Sin embargo, hasta el momento, estos efectos han sido menos drásticos de lo que podría suponerse. Una de las razones es que los padres definitivamente prefieren enviar a sus hijos a las escuelas de su barrio. Otra de las razones es que los costos y la disponibilidad del transporte limitan la gama real disponible de opciones de escuelas (el tema de los costos de transporte se analiza en el capítulo de Kevin J. Krizek, Elizabeth J. Wilson, Ryan Wilson y Julian D. Marshall). Un capítulo muy aleccionador es el que analiza el fascinante caso de Chile, que implementó las becas escolares universales en la década de 1980. Se podría pensar que las opciones de escuelas reducirían la segregación escolar inherente a la segregación residencial, pero Carolina Flores descubrió que la segregación socioeconómica en las escuelas es aún mayor que la segregación residencial. Esto se debe a diferentes razones, incluida la capacidad de algunas escuelas de seleccionar estudiantes o de cobrar cuotas.
No obstante, es posible que dentro de unos diez años, la elección de escuela tenga un impacto más profundo en los mercados inmobiliarios y en la elección del lugar donde vivir. Los avances tecnológicos han comenzado a cambiar radicalmente la educación universitaria. La educación primaria y secundaria tal vez enfrente muy pronto cambios tan fundamentales como aquellos, algunos de los cuales ya se han anunciado en este libro.
The complexity that characterizes the interaction of transportation and land use in urban areas is matched by the variety of the disciplines called on to address these issues, including economics, urban planning and civil engineering. In recent decades, communication among scholars in these disciplines has improved and the acceptance of a common base of theory and method, based on economics, is increasing. The Taxation, Resources and Economic Development (TRED) conference on “Transportation and Land Use” held at the Lincoln Institute in October 1996 focused on these issues. Ten papers presented at that conference are now published in a special issue of the journal Urban Studies. The papers are organized into four groups as summarized below.
Trends in Urban Development
Gregory Ingram’s paper on “Metropolitan Development: What Have We Learned?” documents the worldwide prevalence of several trends that characterize modern urbanization. Employment decentralization and the emergence of multiple employment centers in large metropolitan areas are observed worldwide in both developing and developed countries. Although employment continues to be more centralized than population, the typical Central Business District does not contain more than about 20 percent of jobs, and much smaller percentages are common in the U.S. Manufacturing employment has become more decentralized than service employment. Decentralization has reduced traffic congestion and travel distances and has contributed to a weakening of transit systems. The increased affordability of motorized transportation worldwide has led to more trip-making, with work trips typically being less than a third of all trips in urbanized areas.
Peter Gordon, Harry Richardson and Gang Yu find evidence that the suburbanization and exurbanization of employment in the U.S. has picked up its pace since 1988. In their paper, “Metropolitan and Non-Metropolitan Employment Trends in the U.S.: Recent Evidence and Implications,” they argue that the ability of manufacturing and even of services to locate in exurban and rural areas, shunning inner-suburban and central city locations, is a consequence of the continued weakening of the agglomeration economies that shaped the now outdated downtown-oriented city.
Robert Cervero and Kang-Li Wu examine the relationship between average commuting distance and employment subcentering in their paper, “Subcentering and Commuting: Evidence from the San Francisco Bay Area, 1980-1990.” They are concerned with changes in employment densities in 22 employment subcenters and with the commuting distances and travel times of those employed in these subcenters. The authors find that employment densities have increased more in the outlying suburban centers and that commuting to these centers has experienced modal shifts away from transit and in favor of the automobile. According to their data, while jobs in these centers grew by 18 percent during the decade, average one-way commuting distances to these 22 subcenters increased by 12 percent, and average one-way travel times rose by only 5 percent.
These findings are consistent with theory: with the number of subcenters fixed and the degree of spatial mismatch between jobs and housing invariant with job growth, an increase in the number of jobs in each subcenter should result in longer commutes on average. If new subcenters are spawned in between existing ones or new ones develop in outlying areas-something that does not appear to have occurred in the Bay Area-then average commutes should decrease. The 22 subcenters account for less than half of total employment in the Bay Area, the rest of the jobs being broadly dispersed throughout. Because such dispersed employment is not included in their study, we do not know about the total effect of job decentralization on average commute distances and times.
Genevieve Giuliano’s paper, “Information Technology, Work Patterns and Intrametropolitan Location: A Case Study,” examines the impact of information technology, including the advent of fax machines, computers, modems and the internet. One of her central observations is that while the U.S. labor force increased by 14 percent from 1980 to 1990, the “contingent workforce,” a diverse group of temporary workers, part-time workers, the self-employed and business service workers, increased much faster, from about 25 to 33 percent.
This trend implies that the information revolution is causing structural shifts in the labor force as more and more workers offer temporary services to a variety of employers and, as a result, do not have a long-term attachment to any one employer. Theory suggests that such workers should locate in a way that is sensitive to their expected accessibility to jobs. Also, the advent of information technology should facilitate “telecommuting,” thus reducing the need for physical proximity to jobs.
Giuliano uses the 1990 U.S. Census Public Use Microsample for the Los Angeles region to compare the residential location and commuting patterns of contingent and non-contingent workers. The socioeconomic complexity of contingent workers makes it difficult to draw clear conclusions, but Guiliano does find that those contingent workers who live in suburban areas are likely to live in high amenity areas. Controlling for socioeconomic factors, commuting distances are shorter for part-time workers than they are for full-time workers, and among full-time workers the self-employed have the shortest commutes.
Agglomeration Economies
The next two papers offer empirical contributions on intra-urban employment agglomeration. “Spatial Variation in Office Rents within the Atlanta Region,” by Christopher Bollinger, Keith Ihlanfeldt and David Bowes, is a hedonic rent study for office buildings in the Atlanta area from 1990 to 1996. The authors find that part of the rent differences among office buildings is due to differences in wage rates, transportation rates and proximity to concentrations of office workers. More importantly, the convenience of face-to-face meetings facilitated by office agglomerations is also reflected in office rents, providing evidence that agglomerative tendencies continue to be important in explaining office concentrations, despite the ability of information technology to reduce the need for some such contacts. In their paper, “Population Density in Suburban Chicago: A Bid-Rent Approach,” Daniel McMillen and John McDonald show that population density patterns in the Chicago MSA are strongly influenced by proximity to subcenters, which include the Central Business District, O’Hare Airport and 16 other centers. Site-specific variables such as access to commuter rail stations or highway interchanges have smaller influences on population densities.
Travel Behavior and Residential Choice
Among the challenges posed by the evolving trends in transportation and land use is a better explanation of the role of non-work travel in residential location decisionmaking. Motorized mobility has greatly increased non-work travel, thus weakening the relevance of the now classical commuting-based theory of residential location. While information technology may result in more telecommuting, the importance of non-work travel relative to work travel may grow even more in the future.
Two papers attempt to develop new techniques that can be used to explain the influence of non-work travel behavior on residential location and land use patterns, and vice versa. Central to this research is the notion that when a household makes a residential choice decision it will consider the pattern of non-work trips its members are likely to make. Accessibility to non-work opportunities is likely to be important and, for many households, perhaps more important than accessibility to jobs.
Moshe Ben-Akiva and John Bowman model the probability of choosing a residential location by treating the non-work trip patterns and activity schedules of the household’s members as explanatory variables. Their model allows the treatment of trips as tours with stops at multiple destinations. In their paper, “Integration of an Activity-Based Model System and a Residential Location Model,” the authors report that their model does not fit the data as well as a work-trip-based comparison model. But, the non-work accessibility measures are more appealing conceptually and allow a richer set of predictions and simulations to be made.
Until recently, economists have suppressed the importance of non-work trips in their theories of land use. Planners have viewed land use planning as a tool that can affect behavior and travel demand. But what is the evidence that travel patterns can be influenced meaningfully by manipulating land use at the neighborhood level or in a larger area?
Marlon Boarnet and Sharon Sarmiento tackle this question by means of a travel diary survey of Southern California residents. Their paper is titled “Can Land Use Policy Really Affect Travel Behavior? A Study of the Link Between Non-work Travel and Land Use Characteristics.” The number of work trips made by residents is explained by sociodemographic variables describing the residents and by land use characteristics describing their place of residence. Generally, the land use variables describing the neighborhood are not statistically significant, but future studies could follow this approach by trying more complex specifications and using better data.
Jobs-Housing Mismatch
As first stated by John Kain in 1968, the “spatial mismatch hypothesis” claimed that black central city residents are increasingly at a disadvantage economically as jobs disperse to the suburbs. Many suburban governments limit the quantity of high-density/low-income housing, forcing workers to make long, expensive commutes. Although there is a wealth of empirical work on the mismatch hypothesis, Richard Arnott’s paper, “Economic Theory and the Mismatch Hypothesis,” is one of the first attempts to formulate a microeconomic theory of the mismatch problem. In Arnott’s model, jobs flee to the suburbs because of the advent of international trade (relaxation of global trade barriers) and the emergence of suburban-based inter-city truck transport after World War II. At the same time, large-lot zoning and discrimination in suburban housing markets force minorities to reside in central cities. An increase in the cost of commuting effectively lowers the wage paid to low-skilled labor from the city.
In “Where Youth Live: Economic Effects of Urban Space on Employment Prospects,” John Quigley and Katherine O’Regan investigate how neighborhood of residence and access to jobs affect the employment prospects of minority youth. Black youth unemployment rates are higher in metropolitan areas where blacks are more isolated geographically. Controlling for socioeconomic characteristics, minority youth who have less residential exposure to whites are more likely to be unemployed. Finally, controlling for socioeconomic characteristics as well as residential exposure to whites, minority youth living in neighborhoods that are less accessible to jobs are more likely to be unemployed. While these findings support the mismatch hypothesis, they also suggest the importance of social networks and spatial search as important mechanisms in the intra-urban labor market.
Alex Anas, professor of economics at the State University of New York at Buffalo, was the editor of the special issue of Urban Studies (Vol. 35, No. 7, June 1998). The article and figures used in Land Lines are adapted with permission.
Note: Ben Chinitz, former director of research at the Institute, helped organize the 1996 TRED conference and the following colleagues served as discussants of the papers: James Follain, Vernon Henderson, Douglass Lee, Therese McGuire, Peter Mieszkowski, Edwin Mills, Sam Myers, Dick Netzer, Stephen Ross, Anita Summers, William Wheaton, Michelle White and John Yinger. The conference participants were saddened when news arrived that William Vickrey, who had been named a Nobel laureate in economics only a few days before, had passed away while traveling to the conference. Professor Vickrey had been a leading thinker on issues of transportation and land use and a regular attendee of previous TRED conferences. The special issue of Urban Studies based on the 1996 conference serves as a tribute to his memory.
Una versión más actualizada de este artículo está disponible como parte del capítulo 3 del libro Perspectivas urbanas: Temas críticos en políticas de suelo de América Latina.
La administración catastral en Colombia es un punto de encuentro para autoridades de las distintas instancias del sistema político-administrativo del país. En el ámbito nacional, las actividades catastrales se rigen por las normas técnicas establecidas en la Ley 14 de 1983 y siguen las directrices de la Federación Internacional de Agrimensores (FIG). El Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi (IGAC) es una entidad gubernamental de carácter nacional que se encarga de toda la administración catastral y del control de más de siete millones de parcelas. Además, hay catastros municipales en las ciudades de Cali y Medellín, un sistema departamental en Antioquia y un catastro distrital para el Distrito Capital de Bogotá.
Cada una de estas entidades representa la autoridad catastral en su correspondiente territorio. En tal condición, cada una se encarga de los procesos necesarios para establecer los protocolos y actualizar y mantener los catastros, en los cuales se registra la debida identificación física, jurídica, fiscal y económica de todos los bienes inmuebles. Estas autoridades actualizan los catastros cada cinco años a fin de revisar sus elementos físicos y jurídicos y eliminar las posibles disparidades en el avalúo catastral originadas por cambios físicos, variaciones de uso o de productividad, obras públicas o condiciones locales del mercado inmobiliario. Asimismo revisan los avalúos catastrales anualmente, lo que les permite determinar la base gravable para el impuesto predial.
El Departamento Administrativo de Catastro Distrital de Bogotá (DACD) se creó en 1981 pero no estuvo completamente operativo hasta 1991. El proceso para actualizar la base de datos catastral se estableció en el artículo 5 de la Ley 14 de 1983, pero comenzó efectivamente en 1997. El catastro de Bogotá partió de las directrices del programa catastral nacional para luego formular un programa que reflejara los intereses y preocupaciones locales. El alcalde Antanas Mockus fijó como meta para su administración entre 2002 y 2003 realizar una actualización completa de los bienes inmuebles de Bogotá. A pesar de la poca popularidad de esta tarea, la voluntad política del Alcalde, la asignación que hizo del presupuesto y los recursos necesarios y la persistencia del personal del Catastro Distrital garantizaron el cumplimiento de la meta.
Este esfuerzo actualizó 1.734.622 predios, de los cuales 102.531 pertenecen a la categoría de nuevos predios (formación). Simultáneamente, el valor catastral de base aumentó de 66,61 mil millones a 88,25 mil millones de pesos colombianos, equivalente a un aumento de 21,64 mil millones de pesos (aproximadamente US$ 8 millones; US$1 = 2.700 pesos colombianos). Un cálculo rápido del impacto sobre las rentas públicas indica que el Distrito recaudaría un ingreso adicional de 65 mil millones de pesos (US$ 24 millones) en impuestos prediales por año. La ciudad gastó apenas unos 11 millones de pesos (US$ 4 millones) en el proceso de actualización, por lo que obtuvo un resultado costo-beneficio muy positivo, especialmente porque esta inversión se realiza sólo una vez y los recursos adicionales resultantes son permanentes.
El tener un catastro actualizado es importante no sólo desde la perspectiva de las finanzas públicas, sino también en vista de otras ventajas, tales como la búsqueda de igualdad tributaria, la depuración de los registros catastrales, la mejora de la nomenclatura urbana y la incorporación de la cartografía. Todos estos efectos pueden servir como herramientas útiles para administrar el desarrollo futuro de la ciudad. De esta manera, se hace imprescindible mantener actualizado el catastro a fin de conservar la sólida situación fiscal del Distrito, garantizar la justa distribución de las cargas tributarias entre los diferentes grupos sociales y aportar los recursos financieros para los procesos de planeación y desarrollo.
El resultado positivo de esta iniciativa llevó al DACD a examinar la experiencia catastral de otros países, con miras a encontrar nuevas estrategias e ideas que pudieran contribuir a lograr un mejor desempeño en el futuro. Ello dio pie para el Primer Foro sobre Metodologías de Actualización Catastral, el cual se llevó a cabo en noviembre de 2003 y contó con la participación de expertos de España, Francia y los Estados Unidos, quienes compartieron información sobre diversos temas. El catastro español es el más parecido al de Colombia y ofreció información valiosa sobre la legitimidad y simplificación del proceso. El Instituto Geográfico Nacional de Francia compartió su experiencia obtenida en la integración de los datos catastrales y los desarrollos tecnológicos para la actualización de las bases de datos gráficas. El Instituto Lincoln, que lleva tiempo trabajando en Bogotá sobre varios aspectos de la gestión del suelo y la tributación predial, aportó información acerca de los procesos de avalúo colectivo. Finalmente, el IGAC manifestó su deseo de integrar los datos de su catastro al catastro internacional mediante un acuerdo con sistemas semejantes en otros países del mundo.
Liliana Bustamante es asesora del director del catastro y Nestor Gaviria es el gerente del proyecto de actualización catastral en el Departamento Administrativo del Catastro Distrital en Bogotá, Colombia.
For the past eight years, each of our annual land policy conferences has addressed a different theme; last year’s explored the changing links between education, land, and location in light of the growing importance of school choice. The volume resulting from our 2013 conference—Education, Land, and Location, coedited by Lincoln Institute Fellow Daphne A. Kenyon and me—includes contributions from eminent scholars in a range of social science disciplines from across the U.S., Chile, and England.
When children attend schools near their homes, a strong link arises between residential location and quality of education. That link is strengthened when schools rely heavily on funding from the local property tax, as in the United States. Indeed, part of a house price can be thought of as paying for a ticket into a particular school system. But what if school choice is unlinked from choice of residence?
In the 1960s, approximately one in ten schoolchildren in the United States attended a private school. Now, there are new forms of school choice such as magnet schools, interdistrict and intra-district choice, charter schools, vouchers, and homeschooling. The best available data indicate that today between one-quarter and one-third of schoolchildren exercise some form of school choice.
This volume focuses on three policy issues. The first is racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic segregation. Within the decentralized system of U.S. local government, a great deal of such stratification is evident. As John R. Logan notes, the “average white child attends a school that is over 78 percent white.” The second is academic achievement gaps. Eric A. Hanushek concludes that the “gaps in achievement are stunning,” even though differences in high school attainment rates and scores on the National Assessment of Educational Progress among whites, blacks, and Hispanics have converged somewhat. The third is a lack of equal opportunity flowing from residential segregation and academic achievement gaps. As Elizabeth J. Mueller and Shannon S. Van Zandt state, “Opportunities, in the form of good schools and other public services . . . are neither evenly distributed across regions nor accessible to all.”
The book is divided into four sections. The first reviews the literature, including Ellen B. Goldring and Walker Swain’s loosely chronological account of residential location–schooling linkages in the United States. The second examines questions of school district organization and finance, including William A. Fischel’s economic history of the structure of school districts, Andrew Reschovsky’s assessment of the property tax as the key funding source for K–12 education, and Henry A. Coleman’s examination of nontraditional sources of school funding. The third considers the effects of charter school location, with contributions from Robert Bilfulco and John R. Logan; Julia Burdick-Will and Elisabeta Minca; and Stephen Machin and Anne West, who analyze academy schools—the equivalent of charter schools in England. The fourth section examines cases where education and location are unlinked, such as homeschooling in Virginia, analyzed by Luke C. Miller.
This volume presents some evidence, highlighted in Eric J. Brunner’s chapter, that introduction of school choice reduces both the housing price premium associated with location in a high-quality school district and residential segregation. So far, however, these effects are less dramatic than one might suppose. One reason is that parents strongly prefer to send their children to neighborhood schools. Another reason is that the expense and availability of transportation limit the effective range of school choice. (Transportation costs are analyzed in the chapter by Kevin J. Krizek, Elizabeth J. Wilson, Ryan Wilson, and Julian D. Marshall.) One fascinating chapter on Chile, which implemented universal school vouchers in the 1980s, is instructive. One might have thought that school choice would reduce the school segregation inherent in residential segregation, but Carolina Flores found that socioeconomic segregation in schools is even greater than in residential neighborhoods. There are a number of reasons for this, including some schools’ ability to select students or to charge fees.
It is possible, however, that a decade from now school choice may have a more profound impact on housing markets and residential choice. Technological changes have begun to upend college education. Perhaps elementary and secondary education will soon face changes just as fundamental, some of which have been foreshadowed by the analysis in this volume.
How have infrastructure investments shaped global city regions? What have been the effects on the residents? Do the effects differ among residents in different sections of the city? Is the process different by type of infrastructure, such as highways, mass transit, airports or seaports? What if high-technology telecommunications infrastructures are included among our considerations? When the forces of globalization and technological change interact, do cities fare differently? Do their residents experience these changes differently?
These were among the questions generated at the second meeting of the global city regions consortium coordinated in July by Roger Simmonds, senior lecturer of planning at Oxford Brookes University. Most of the participants at the first conference held at the Lincoln Institute in September 1995 reconvened in El Escorial, Spain, to present the results of their latest research on the relationship between the location and timing of infrastructure development and the spatial form of the region. Teams from 11 city regions made presentations: Ankara, Turkey; Bangkok, Thailand; Madrid, Spain; San Diego, California; Santiago, Chile; and Sao Paulo, Brazil; Seattle, Washington; Taipei, Taiwan; The Randstad, Holland; Tokyo, Japan; and West Midlands, England.
Commenting on the relationship between infrastructure, governance and regional planning, Pedro Ortiz Castano, director of planning for the municipal government of Madrid, described the municipality’s extensive infrastructure plan. Existing highways, roads and transit lines will be woven together with other planned development to cover the region in a matrix or grid. This configuration is meant to reduce congestion and increase accessibility across city sectors as well as among social and economic classes.
Madrid’s grid-system of infrastructure and settlements presents a sharp contrast to the concentric rings of highways found in Seattle, as described by Anne Vernez-Moudon, professor of architecture and urban planning at the University of Washington. Despite the presence of Puget Sound to the west and the Cascade Mountains to the east, Seattle reflects the typical North American affection for beltways. Furthermore, with one highway dubbed the “Boeing Beltway,” the relationship between government-funded infrastructure and the private sector is clear.
This comparison also illustrates the role of Madrid’s strong regional government in attempting to have infrastructure-whether government-funded or privatized-shape the urban form. In most global city regions with weaker governments, infrastructure only plays catch-up with existing demand.
Consortium commentator Gary Hack argued that the polynucleated ‘spread city’ is the more typical reality, usually accompanied by an increase in spatial segregation by class. Since the powerful economic and technological forces at work around the globe are likely to accelerate and reinforce these trends, he concludes that planners should focus on specific sites within city regions where they can exert their influence with the most positive results.
The comparative analysis between Ortiz’s metropolitan-wide infrastructure plan and Hack’s site-specific approach reminds us that, despite the similarities among forces shaping city regions across the globe, the ways these forces play out vary widely. These variances reflect important differences in institutional arrangements, history, culture, attitudes about private property, and notions of the public interest, among other factors. Furthermore, these differences also affect how researchers see their own cities in comparison to others.
The role of informal markets, for example, illustrates the challenge researchers face in attempting to understand both the unique and common features of international forces. While it is hard to understand land markets and land use in cities as different as Ankara and Santiago de Chile without understanding the informal sector, western European and North American researchers rarely attempt to understand their cities’ land markets from this perspective.
The regional city teams are continuing to work on their respective reports in preparation for publication of a book by International Thomson Publishing in the United Kingdom.
Rosalind Greenstein is a senior fellow of the Lincoln Institute and director of the Program on Land Use and Regulation.
Colombia’s cadastral administration is a meeting point for authorities from the various levels of the country’s political-administrative system. At the national level, cadastral activities are determined by the technical norms established by Law 14 of 1983 and modeled on guidelines of the International Federation of Surveyors (FIG). The national government agency Agustin Codazzi Geographic Institute (IGAC) is responsible for all cadastral administration and oversight of more than 7 million parcels. In addition, there are municipal-level cadastres in the cities of Cali and Medellín, a department-level system in the Department of Antioquia, and a district-level cadastre for Bogotá’s Capital District.
Each of these entities represents the cadastral authority in its assigned territory. As such, each is in charge of the processes of establishing protocols and updating and maintaining the cadastres, which record the proper physical, legal, fiscal and economic identification of all real estate properties. These authorities update the cadastres every five years in order to check their physical and legal elements and to eliminate eventual disparities in cadastral valuation due to physical mutations, use or productivity changes, public works or local real estate market conditions. The authorities also reset the cadastral valuations every year, which enables them to determine the base payment level of the property tax.
Bogotá’s Administrative Department for the District Cadastre (DACD) was established in 1981 but was not fully operational until 1991. The process for updating the cadastre database was provided in Article 5 of Law 14 of 1983, but was started in 1997. The Bogotá cadastre relied on the national cadastre program guidelines before formulating a program that reflected local interests and concerns. Mayor Antanas Mockus set a goal for his administration in 2000–2003 to undertake a complete updating of Bogotá’s real properties. In spite of the unpopularity of this task, the mayor’s political will, his commitment of the necessary budget and resources, and the persistence of the District Cadastre’s staff ensured that the goal was met.
This endeavor updated 1,734,622 properties, 102,531 of which belong to the incorporated-as-new category. At the same time, the cadastral base value was increased from $66.61 billion to $88.25 billion Colombian pesos, thus increasing $21.64 billion pesos (approximately US$8 million; US$1=2,700 Colombian pesos). A quick calculation of the revenue impact suggested the District would receive an additional income of $65 billion pesos (US$24 million) in property taxes per year. The city spent only about $11 billion pesos (US$4 million) on the updating process, so it obtained a very positive cost-benefit result, especially because this investment is done only once and the resulting additional resources are permanent.
Having an updated cadastre is important not only from a public finance perspective but also for other benefits, such as addressing taxation inequity, purging cadastral archives, improving the urban nomenclature and incorporating cartography. All of these effects may be used as valuable tools for administrating the city’s future development. Thus, keeping the cadastre updated becomes imperative to preserve the District’s solid fiscal status, ensure the just distribution of the tax burden among the different social groups, and provide financial resources for planning and development processes.
The positive outcome of this experience led DACD to examine other countries’ experiences with cadastres, in search of new strategies and ideas that could help improve future performance. This led to the First Cadastral Updating Methodologies Forum, which took place in November 2003 with experts from Spain, France and the U.S. sharing information on different issues. Spain’s cadastre most resembles Colombia’s and offered valuable information on the legitimacy and simplification of the process. The National Geographic Institute of France shared experiences in linking registered cadastre data and technological developments in updating graphic databases. The Lincoln Institute, which has long worked in Bogotá on various aspects of land management and taxation, contributed information regarding mass valuation processes. Finally, the IGAC manifested its desire to integrate its cadastre data with the international cadastre through an agreement with similar systems worldwide.
Liliana Bustamante is adviser to the director of the cadastre and Nestor Gaviria is project manager for updating the cadastre in the Administrative Department for the District Cadastre in Bogotá, Colombia.
Hace cinco años, Mandy Pumilia, residente de Nueva Orleáns, estaba preocupada por la gran cantidad de estructuras aparentemente deterioradas que existían en su barrio, conocido como Bywater, donde actualmente se desempeña como vicepresidente de la asociación de vecinos. A pesar de todos los esfuerzos realizados con posterioridad a la catástrofe de Katrina, resultaba muy difícil identificar y rastrear las propiedades que verdaderamente presentaban problemas y, además, Pumilia no tenía acceso a los datos municipales que podrían haberle sido de utilidad. En lugar de ello, elaboró su propia planilla de cálculo en Google y la llenó con los resultados de su propia investigación y trabajo de campo. Según recuerda, “fue un proceso arduo”. Y a pesar de sus conocimientos tecnológicos y su determinación, esta tarea sólo fue una solución limitada: no resultaba fácil compartir la información más allá de las personas que ella conocía directamente y, además, estar al día de las audiencias municipales relacionadas con temas de la propiedad era una tarea enorme.
A partir de entonces, la aplicación web BlightStatus (blightstatus.nola.gov) –que se traduciría como “status de deterioro”– se ha convertido en una nueva y valiosa herramienta a la hora de tomar medidas de recuperación en su barrio. Creada en el año 2012 por Code for America, una organización sin fines de lucro especializada en proyectos de código abierto dirigidos al gobierno municipal, BlightStatus facilita a ciudadanos como Pumilia el acceso a datos sobre propiedades, permitiéndoles participar de manera más estrecha en la gestión del deterioro y otros desafíos de planificación. Esta iniciativa llamó la atención de otras ciudades, lo que generó una iniciativa derivada, denominada Civic Insight, que actualmente despliega su tecnología en Dallas, Atlanta, Palo Alto, Sacramento y otros lugares.
En Nueva Orleáns, BlightStatus reúne información sobre inspecciones, quejas relativas a las normas, audiencias, juicios, ejecuciones hipotecarias, etc. Por lo general, estos datos se encuentran encriptados o resulta muy difícil acceder a los mismos; sin embargo, esta aplicación reúne y actualiza la mayoría de los datos a diario. Los usuarios pueden buscar por dirección o utilizar un mapa interactivo para buscar a nivel de barrio o de ciudad. Un aspecto particularmente útil es la función “lista de observación”, que permite a un usuario como Pumilia mantener pestañas abiertas relacionadas con ciertas propiedades específicas y oportunamente envía alertas sobre audiencias o cualquier otra novedad. Pumilia agrega: “Además, me facilita empoderar a otros residentes, por lo que no soy la única persona que posee esta información”.
Cuando otras ciudades conocieron el uso extensivo que Nueva Orleáns hacía de esta aplicación y, como consecuencia, expresaron su interés en disponer de una herramienta similar, Code for America adaptó la tecnología para que pudiera funcionar en cualquier lugar. Tal como lo expresa Eddie Tejeda, uno de los creadores de BlightStatus: “Parecía que habíamos tocado una fibra sensible”. Los aspectos específicos variaban de un lugar a otro, pero la lucha para obtener datos inmobiliarios oficiales era, claramente, una frustración común a todos. Mucha gente quiere información sobre edificios y propiedades, pero lo único que suele estar disponible, según Tejeda, “es realmente muy difícil de utilizar”, ya que profundizar en estos datos requiere conocimientos y experiencia.
Con una inversión de la Fundación Knight, el grupo creó Civic Insight en el año 2013, utilizando el trabajo que habían realizado en Nueva Orleáns como un modelo que pudiera adaptarse a otras ciudades, ya fueran más grandes o más pequeñas, con diferentes necesidades y conjuntos de datos (las cuotas de configuración y suscripción anual varían según la población: aproximadamente de US$1.000 a US$10.000 para la tarifa básica, más un monto de entre 20 y 70 centavos de dólar per cápita). Entre los nuevos clientes, Dallas está resultando ser un caso de estudio particularmente importante. Esta metrópoli en franco crecimiento, que presenta una gran variedad de barrios muy diferentes entre sí –desde los caros y prósperos hasta aquellos con graves problemas económicos–, demuestra que esta estrategia de tecnología de datos de código abierto no sólo sirve en casos selectivos como el de Nueva Orleáns después del huracán Katrina.
La conexión se dio a través de la organización Hábitat para la Humanidad. La delegación que esta entidad sin fines de lucro tiene en Nueva Orleáns ha sido un usuario entusiasta de la aplicación BlightStatus. Los miembros de esta organización hicieron correr la voz a sus colegas en Dallas, ciudad que ha estado luchando por lograr estrategias para utilizar datos con el fin de definir, rastrear y abordar el problema del deterioro y otras cuestiones, como la identificación de propietarios problemáticos. La versión de Blight-Status para Dallas, cuyo lanzamiento fue a finales del año 2014 con datos similares a la información recabada en Nueva Orleáns, incorporará estadísticas adicionales relativas a delincuencia y tributación, ya que los residentes desean acceder a estos datos más fácilmente, como afirma Theresa O’Donnell, directora de planificación municipal que habló sobre la aplicación en la conferencia de Directores de Planificación de Grandes Ciudades organizada por el Instituto Lincoln en Cambridge en octubre de 2014. Según O’Donnell, “a medida que estos programas se configuren y se comiencen a utilizar, podremos contar cada vez más con los ciudadanos para que nos hagan saber si [las medidas que tomamos contra el deterioro] están funcionando o no”.
Atlanta y Sacramento están poniendo en funcionamiento sus propios programas para poder utilizar la aplicación este año, y Civic Insight está tomando medidas para que pueda utilizarse muy pronto en Fort Worth, Texas, y otros lugares. Los objetivos de los clientes no se limitan a los problemas relacionados con el deterioro, según destaca Tejeda, que actualmente se desempeña como director ejecutivo de Civic Insight: en Palo Alto, donde la zonificación, el desarrollo y la construcción son temas candentes, tanto arquitectos como propietarios utilizan la aplicación para mantenerse al día en los procesos de obtención de permisos. Esta flexibilidad es deliberada. Tal como explica Tejeda, “podemos cartografiar con relativa rapidez [datos sin procesar] en nuestra aplicación. El papel que desempeñamos es el de un traductor que interpreta lo que tiene la ciudad y las necesidades de la comunidad” (la aplicación está diseñada también para recibir nuevos conjuntos de datos, y no es de sorprender que ciudadanos activos de Nueva Orleáns, como Pumilia, tengan muchísimas sugerencias que Civic Insight está tratando de incorporar).
Los conjuntos de datos integrales y otras herramientas digitales han servido de guía a los planificadores y otros funcionarios municipales durante años, pero Civic Insight está ahora pensando en dar el siguiente paso lógico. Según Peter Pollock, fellow del Instituto Lincoln y exdirector de planificación de Boulder, Colorado, “tenemos la gran oportunidad de aprovechar estos datos –que, para muchas ciudades, son datos ocultos– y sacarlos a la luz”, de manera que resulten útiles tanto para los ciudadanos como para los planificadores.
Este nivel de accesibilidad es muy importante, ya que los gestores de políticas deben “coproducir la buena ciudad” junto con los residentes, tal como lo expresa Pollock, quien continúa: “Los planificadores tienen la tarea de aprovechar la energía de la comunidad y encauzarla hacia una visión para el futuro”. Esto implica aspectos tales como la zonificación y la obtención de permisos, pero también los referentes al mantenimiento y el cumplimiento de normas. Pollock concluye: “No se trata sólo de construir la ciudad, sino de cuidar y alimentar a la ciudad a lo largo del tiempo”.
Aun así, la propuesta de Civic Insight puede parecer confusa al principio: ¿Cómo se beneficia una ciudad al esperar que los ciudadanos analicen cuidadosamente la información que ya posee? Sin embargo, esa es la cuestión. Poner los datos a disposición de las personas que realmente conocen los barrios donde viven y trabajan equivale a una especie de estrategia de crowdsourcing –o externalización distribuida– para el mantenimiento de la ciudad en lo relativo a la planificación.
Si no, preguntémosle a Pumilia. Esta es la esencia de lo que ella trataba de hacer en Nueva Orleáns hace unos pocos años con su planilla de cálculo casera y muchísimo coraje. Ahora puede monitorear su barrio más fácilmente, y puede además recomendar BlightStatus a otras personas para que puedan también obtener rápidamente la información que necesitan y presionar al municipio para que tome medidas respecto a las propiedades problemáticas.
Mientras hablamos, Pumilia busca unos datos y nos cuenta la historia de una dirección en particular: “Sobre esta propiedad pesan no una, dos, tres, ni cuatro causas, sino ¡cinco!”. En pocas palabras, Pumilia acaba de improvisar un expediente listo para usar sobre el abandono de la propiedad, que ayudó a persuadir a los funcionarios públicos a iniciar un proceso que debería desembocar en la subasta pública de la propiedad.
A veces, Pumilia dice, riendo: “Se necesita la acción de los ciudadanos para animar a la gente a realizar su trabajo”.
Rob Walker (robwalker.net) colabora con Yahoo Tech, Design Observer y The New York Times.