The central question facing land conservationists today is how to scale up efforts to protect entire landscapes and whole natural systems. The land trust movement has been built on the individual successes of conserved private properties, but increasingly both conservationists and landowners entering into conservation agreements want to know what is being done about their neighbor, their neighborhood, and most significantly their landscape (Williams 2011).
Farmers and ranchers talk of the need to sustain a continuous network of working lands—a critical mass of agricultural activity—or risk losing the supporting businesses and community cooperation they require to survive. Firefighters say that keeping remote lands undeveloped reduces the hazards and costs of firefighting for local communities. Sportsmen are losing access to public lands and wildlife when scattered rural development fragments habitat. Conservation biologists have long suggested that protecting bigger places will sustain more species, and conversely that fragmentation of habitat is the leading cause of species decline and loss. Finally, a rapidly changing climate reinforces the need to protect large, connected ecosystems to be resilient over the long term.
With many funders and public partners seeking to focus on collaborative, landscape-scale conservation efforts, the land trust community has an excellent opportunity to leverage its good work by engaging in landscape partnerships. Land trusts, with their grassroots base and collaborative working style, are in a good position to help support local initiatives. The process of building these efforts, however, requires a commitment beyond the urgency of transactions and fundraising, and necessitates a sustained focus that is much broader than the immediate objectives of many land trusts.
What Does Success Look Like?
Montana’s Blackfoot River was made famous in Norman Maclean’s 1976 story, A River Runs Through It (Maclean 2001), but what really stands out about the Blackfoot region is how the community has worked together over many decades to sustain this special place. Building on conservation work initiated by local landowners in the 1970s, the Blackfoot Challenge was established in 1993 to bring the area’s diverse interests together around consensus-based approaches to sustaining the rural character and natural resources of the valley. Rancher Jim Stone, chairman of this landowner group, says “we were tired of complaining about what we couldn’t do, so we decided to start talking about what we could do.”
This collaborative effort has used innovative conservation approaches for the Blackfoot that have been replicated in many other places. The group’s work began with a focus on better managing increased recreational use of the river and protecting the river corridor. The first conserva-tion easement secured in Montana was on the Blackfoot in 1976 as part of this pioneering effort. From that initial success grew more ambitious initiatives with engagement from an expanding set of partners.
When landowners said they were not getting enough help to control weeds, the Challenge established one of the largest weed control districts in the West. When landowners argued there were not enough resources for conserving working ranches, the Challenge helped create an innovative U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) program to purchase conservation easements with the federal Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF), which historically has been used for public land acquisition.
When landowners were concerned about the potential sale of vast forest lands in the valley, the Challenge launched a comprehensive acquisition plan that linked protected private ranches on the valley floor with forested public lands at higher elevations. When landowners recognized the need for systemic river restoration, the Challenge and the Big Blackfoot Chapter of Trout Unlimited helped restore more than 48 tributary streams and 600 miles of fish passage for native trout and watershed health (Trout Unlimited 2011).
The Blackfoot Challenge partners with more than 160 landowners, 30 businesses, 30 nonprofits, and 20 public agencies. Clearly, the Challenge’s vision for the area is not limited to just a few ranches, but rather is focused on the long-term health of the entire river valley, from “ridge to ridge” in Jim Stone’s words (figure 1).
The wonderful aspect of the Blackfoot story is that it is no longer a rare exception but an emblem of a much larger movement of collaborative conservation efforts around the country. These landscape partnerships confirm an emerging consensus about the need to protect and sustain entire landscapes that are vital to the health of fish and wildlife, as well as to the vitality of local communities, their economy, and their quality of life.
Landowner-Driven Conservation Efforts
The Blackfoot story underscores one of the most important lessons emerging from community-based conservation initiatives—local landowners should be in front and everyone else behind. An example from the Yampa River in western Colorado illustrates this approach. In the early 1990s, conservation groups were trying to protect the area, but were met with major mistrust by the local ranchers. The valley had no shortage of community visioning exercises and groups trying to conserve the region, but none of the ideas had really taken hold in a meaningful way, precisely because local landowners were not in the lead.
That dynamic was then turned on its head by several landowner initiatives, the most significant being the Routt County Open Lands Plan. The plan’s recommendations grew out of a series of local landowner meetings held throughout the county. The plan called for eight significant measures to better manage explosive growth in the valley, ranging from a right-to-farm ordinance to a purchase of development rights program on working ranches. Routt County became one of the first rural counties in the West to raise public funds through a local ballot measure to protect working ranches.
The Malpai Borderlands is another enduring example of how landowner leadership can break through decades of gridlock. After years of conflict between ranchers and federal agencies over the management of public lands around the Animas Mountains in the boot heel of New Mexico and southeastern Arizona, Bill Macdonald and other neighboring ranchers helped spearhead a landowner collaborative called the Malpai Borderlands Group to reintroduce fire for the health of grasslands and the local ranching economy. That effort grew into an innovative partnership among ranchers, conservation groups, and public agencies to conserve and sustain this one-million-acre working wilderness through conservation easements, grass banking, and a more integrated stewardship approach to the system as a whole.
Land Trusts and Public-Private Partnerships
As significant as landowner leadership is to collaborative, landscape-scale conservation efforts, land trusts and agencies also can play a vital role in leading from behind as a reliable partner with deep local ties, knowledge of outside resources, and an ability to implement research and conservation projects. On Montana’s Rocky Mountain Front, for example, local ranchers are working together with several land trusts and the USFWS to protect working lands through conservation easements. The local landowner committee has been led by several local ranchers, but their 20-year friendship with Dave Carr of The Nature Conservancy has been pivotal in their staying engaged. Greg Neudecker of the USFWS’s Partners for Wildlife Program has played a similar role in the Blackfoot, given his 21-years of service to community collaboration there.
Many landowners and land trusts hesitate to bring public agencies into landscape partnerships because they often pride themselves on achieving conservation through private action. When engaged as part of landscape partnerships, however, state and federal agencies can be very effective allies. In the Blackfoot, the science, research, monitoring, funding, and restoration work delivered by the State of Montana and the USFWS has made a huge impact on the recovery of the river system.
On the land protection front, public acquisition of extensive timberlands in the Blackfoot has complemented private land trust work by consolidating public lands and maintaining community access to those lands for grazing, forestry, and recreation. Recognizing the problems associated with a century of fire suppression, the U.S. Forest Service has initiated experimental thinning projects of small-diameter stands to restore the structure and function of forestlands and reduce the fire threat to the valley. That work is now being expanded through a new federally funded Collaborative Forest Landscape Restoration Program (CFLRP) across the Blackfoot, Clearwater, and Swan valleys.
The larger principle is that all the major stakeholders have to be at the table, working together toward their common ground. David Mannix, another Blackfoot Challenge rancher, explains what they call the 80–20 rule: “We work on the 80 percent we can agree on and check the other 20 percent at the door with our hat.” Jim Stone claims that when people show up at a Blackfoot Challenge meeting, “We ask you to leave your organizational agenda at the door and put the landscape first,” focusing on the health of the land and the community so closely tied to it.
What’s really important is having the “right people” at the table for private-public partnerships to work—creative individuals motivated by a common vision and humble enough to recognize that they do not have all the answers. Collaboration takes time. Once common-ground approaches are developed, it is critical to have initial success, however small, that can build the kind of foundation needed for bigger solutions down the road.
The Need for Funding
The most serious barrier for local collaborative groups to achieve landscape-level goals is the lack of adequate funding. Without sufficient financial support, collaborative efforts often lose momentum, which can set back this kind of work for years.
Funding is not a static element, but it is responsive to the scale of the outcomes that can be achieved and the breadth of the constituency engaged. Neither private nor public funders want to participate in partial success unless it is a step toward a long-term, sustainable goal. And they do not want to fund places where groups are competing. Increasingly, land trusts and agencies have come to realize the potential of what can be achieved through collaboration. Donors consistently have led on this issue because they understand a resource-constrained world and the value of leveraging diverse strengths and funding.
Even when great collaborative efforts come together around common goals and achieve a heightened threshold of success, a serious funding gap often exists in achieving truly landscape-scale conservation. Mark Shaffer, former director of the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation’s Environment Program, estimated this gap to be about $5 billion per year in new funding and tax incentives needed over the next 30 years to conserve a network of important landscapes in the United States.
The land trust community is now conserving land at the rate of about 2.6 million acres per year—a cumulative total of about 37 million acres according to the last census in 2005 (Land Trust Alliance 2006). However, to sustain whole landscapes before urgent threats close the window of opportunity, that rate needs to double or triple, and efforts must be conducted in a more focused way.
Emerging Opportunities for Landscape-Scale Conservation
There are several major trends and near-term opportunities that could enhance landscape-scale conservation efforts, but their success hinges on land trust engagement and leadership. First, it is critical that Congress make permanent the enhanced deductions for conservation easements. The Land Trust Alliance (2011) points out that these deductions can protect more than 250,000 additional acres per year. Given the current congressional focus on spending cuts and tax cuts, this is one of the few conservation finance tools that may be achievable in the near term. Over the longer term, a national transferable tax credit program, similar to those in Colorado and Virginia, could create an enormous incentive for securing conservation easements.
The second trend relates to increasing the federal focus on protecting whole landscapes by empowering communities that are already working together. In 2005 the Bush administration launched a Cooperative Conservation Program that provided improved agency coordination and capacity grants for local collaborative work. In 2010, the Obama administration launched the America’s Great Outdoors Initiative to help communities better sustain their land and water resources through locally driven partnerships and to reconnect America’s youth to the natural environment (Obama 2010).
While federal resources are highly constrained in the near term, existing programs and funding could be more focused on whole landscape conservation projects. Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsack has announced a major policy shift for the department to an “all lands” approach to conserving and restoring the big systems of the United States. For example, the Natural Resources Conservation Service recently announced that it would reinvest $89 million of unspent Wetland Reserve Program funds to purchase conservation easements over 26,000 acres of working ranches in the Florida Everglades. The opportunity facing the land trust community is to ensure that these projects are implemented in a manner that builds broad support for this work over the long term.
The third opportunity is passing local and statewide measures to increase funding and tax incentives for conservation. Despite the weak economy and pervasive talk of less government and lower taxes, voters in the 2010 elections passed 83 percent of the ballot initiatives presented nationwide to fund land and water conservation. Overall, 41 of 49 funding measures passed, generating more than $2 billion for land, water, parks, and farmland conservation over the next 20 years (The Trust for Public Land 2010).
The final trend and opportunity for the land trust community is partnering with private capital funders on major land conservation projects. Between 1983 and 2009, more than 43 million acres of forest lands traded hands (Rinehart 2010). New private equity groups, called Timber Investment Management Organizations (TIMOs) and Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs), picked up 27 million acres of this land in a very short period, and many of these investment groups, including Lyme Timber, Conservation Forestry, Ecosystem Investment Partners, Beartooth Capital Partners, have conservation as part of their business model.
The Question of Scale
An ongoing trend in conservation has been an expanding focus from individual properties to neighborhoods, landscapes, ecosystems, and now networks of ecosystems. For example, landowners in the Blackfoot, Swan Valley, and Rocky Mountain Front have come to realize that the health of their landscapes depends on the health of the larger Crown of the Continent (figure 2).
Surrounding the Bob Marshall Wilderness and Glacier-Waterton International Peace Park, the 10-million-acre Crown is one of the most intact ecosystems in North America. Thanks to a century of public land designations and 35 years of private land protection by local communities, this ecosystem has not lost a single species since European settlement. Landowners and other partners have been reaching across the Crown in a variety of ways to see how they can work together more closely for the good of the whole.
Even in the Crown’s large expanse, the sustainability of its wildlife populations depends on their connections to other populations throughout the Northern Rockies. That even larger network of natural systems can only be realized, however, if critical linkage areas can be sustained. For this reason, land trusts in Wyoming, Idaho, Montana, and Canada have been collaborating through a framework called the Heart of the Rockies to identify common priorities and conservation needs. This level of regional collaboration has resulted in both a new level of conservation and more attention from funders. It has also been pivotal for land trust collaboration around common policy priorities.
Organizing at these larger scales is truly imperative if we are to sustain well-connected natural systems, but it is also important to understand what can be achieved at each scale. Large regional initiatives are important for creating a broad, compelling vision, but not for implementing conservation on the ground. Such large-scale approaches are good at applying science at nature’s scale, creating regional collaboration around common priorities and a forum for exchange on innovative ideas, and bringing greater attention to the area. They also provide an important context for why local work is so significant.
Melanie Parker, a local leader for collaborative conservation efforts in the Swan Valley, cautions: “We need to aggregate our efforts across the larger region to influence policy and to access resources, but anyone who thinks that conservation work can or should be done at the scale of 10 million acres is seriously misguided. This kind of work has to be done at the scale at which people live, work, and understand their landscapes.”
Local people are moved to act by the power of their own place and in their own way. Designing strategies at a large scale is often too abstract for landowners at best, or outright alienating at worse. As in politics, all conservation is local. Likewise, politicians are most responsive to homegrown projects devised and backed by local residents. How large place-based efforts really can be and still hold community cohesion is an important question, but certainly the Blackfoot, Rocky Mountain Front, and Swan Valley are pushing the outer limits. Each is addressing lands at the scale of 0.5 million to 1.5 million acres.
Land trusts can add value to local efforts through regional collaboration. While landowners and local residents often do not have the additional time to participate in these larger initiatives, they want their place and specific issues to be well-represented. Land trusts and conservation organizations can play the very important role of connecting local, place-based groups, but they need to coordinate with those groups and not get out in front of them. In the end, the land trust community could be well served by strengthening its collaborative work, by deepening its engagement in landscape partnerships, and by working at larger scales to achieve conservation success.
Conclusion
After many decades of outstanding work, the more than 1,700 land trusts across the country can use their momentum to conserve the large systems that matter for people and nature. Indeed, this is what communities are asking for and what nature needs to survive. Moving beyond isolated victories to a more interconnected conservation vision is just as important for local sustainable economies and recreational access as it is for wildlife corridors and healthy watersheds. To be successful at this scale requires real collaboration and a reorientation for everyone involved. With the many opportunities currently rising for whole-landscape conservation, the moment is ours to seize.
References
Land Trust Alliance. 2006. 2005 national land trust census. Washington, DC. 30 November.
———. 2011. Accelerating the pace of conservation. www.landtrustalliance.org/policy
Maclean, Norman. 2001 [1976]. A river runs through it and other stories. 25th anniversary edition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Obama, Barack. 2010. Presidential Memorandum: America’s Great Outdoors, April 16. http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/presidential-memorandum-americas-great-outdoors
Rinehart, Jim. 2010. U.S. timberland post-recession: Is it the same asset? San Francisco, CA: R&A Investment Forestry. April. www.investmentforestry.com
The Trust for Public Land. 2010. www.landvote.org
Trout Unlimited. 2011. Working together to restore the Blackfoot Watershed. February. www.tu.org
Williams, Jamie. 2011. Large landscape conservation: A view from the field. Working Paper. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
About the Author
Jamie Williamsis The Nature Conservancy’s director of landscape conservation for North America, based in Boulder, Colorado. He focuses on programs to protect large landscapes through innovative public and private partnerships. He was a Kingsbury Browne Fellow at the Lincoln Institute in 2010–2011. He holds a Master in Environmental Studies from the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies and a B.A. from Yale University.
El Parque Nacional Yellowstone parece tan silvestre hoy en día porque en 1872 se convirtió en el primer parque nacional del mundo, y porque los incendios de 1988 y la exitosa reintroducción de lobos en la década de 1990 restauraron el carácter dinámico del paisaje original. En su última serie de televisión en PBS, el cineasta Ken Burns llamó a nuestros parques nacionales “la mejor idea de los Estados Unidos”; sin embargo, cada vez más personas dentro del movimiento conservacionista creen actualmente que, en el mejor de los casos, las áreas totalmente protegidas como Yellowstone son sólo una parte de la solución conservacionista. Este grupo sostiene que deberíamos salvar a la naturaleza para las personas en lugar de salvar a la naturaleza del impacto ocasionado por las personas y que nuestros esfuerzos deberían incluir otras muchas áreas diferentes con menor énfasis en la “preservación” de los terrenos.
Esta es una variación del debate mantenido hace cien años entre el conservacionista John Muir y el administrador forestal Gifford Pinchot: ¿Deberíamos proteger a la naturaleza por su valor intrínseco o nuestro enfoque debería sería mucho más utilitarista? Este último punto de vista tenía como objetivo maximizar la producción a largo plazo de agua, vida silvestre aprovechable y madera, y que en la actualidad incluiría los yacimientos de carbón, los biocombustibles, la eliminación de nutrientes y la protección contra peligros naturales… en suma, todas las cosas que brinda el mundo natural.
El debate contemporáneo plantea además otra cuestión acerca de la omnipresencia del impacto humano sobre las áreas naturales. Yellowstone, como cualquier otro lugar del planeta, se encuentra profundamente influenciado por las decisiones del ser humano. Aldo Leopold (1966, 254) percibió este dilema hace más de 60 años cuando escribió: “La invención de herramientas por parte del ser humano le ha permitido realizar cambios de una violencia, rapidez y alcance sin precedentes”. En la actualidad, estas herramientas son todavía mucho más poderosas. En su último libro, Rambunctious Garden, la escritora científica Emma Marris (2011) propone el argumento según el cual tendremos que aprender a aceptar una naturaleza alterada por las actividades del ser humano. No resulta suficiente pensar en la preservación de las áreas naturales para permitir un funcionamiento sin obstáculos de sus sistemas naturales. Cada lugar requiere algún tipo de gestión, aun cuando fuere sólo con el fin de proteger lo que resta de su condición “natural”.
Los alcances de la responsabilidad del ser humano en relación con la naturaleza me quedaron claros en una reciente conversación con Phil Kramer, director para el Caribe de la organización The Nature Conservancy, quien describió la disminución regresiva de los arrecifes de coral en esa región y los esfuerzos llevados a cabo por su equipo para restaurar dichos arrecifes, seleccionando los genotipos de coral que parecían más resistentes al agua más caliente, cultivándolos en viveros y utilizándolos posteriormente para reconstruir los arrecifes en diferentes lugares.
Durante miles de años, de manera consciente e inconsciente, el ser humano ha modelado su entorno según sus necesidades; sin embargo, este tipo de intervención intencional a fin de responder a las cada vez mayores amenazas contra la naturaleza representa un nuevo enfoque que resulta diferente del punto de vista de preservación de Muir y de la perspectiva de administración científica de Pinchot. Hoy en día estamos intentando crear nuestro futuro de conservación a escalas cada vez mayores. Este proceso de conservación creativa se basa en los enfoques analíticos acerca de la conservación que se tenían en el pasado, pero ello no depende únicamente del análisis de referencia de ecosistemas históricos para establecer metas para el futuro. Por el contrario, requiere que nuestras metas provengan de una síntesis de necesidades y beneficios tanto del ser humano como de la naturaleza, según lo que Aldo Leopold (1966, 239) denominó “ética del suelo”, es decir, una responsabilidad personal e informada con respecto a la salud y el futuro de nuestro suelo y del agua.
Desafíos a la hora de proteger a la naturaleza
Esta perspectiva sobre la conservación se ve envuelta en un encendido debate dentro de la comunidad conservacionista. Muchos sostienen la idea de restaurar las áreas afectadas para que vuelvan a su estado silvestre y, finalmente, al poder de la naturaleza, mientras que otros reconocen que estos enfoques sólo pueden ser una parte de nuestro futuro. Desde mi punto de vista, la energía de la comunidad conservacionista debería dirigirse no tanto hacia el debate interno sino a resolver los verdaderos desafíos que enfrentamos a la hora de sustentar el marco y las funciones principales de los sistemas naturales para beneficio de las personas y de la naturaleza misma. Y ¿cuáles son estos desafíos?
Estrategias para la conservación creativa
Al llegar a este punto fundamental en la historia conservacionista de los Estados Unidos, ¿qué debería hacer el movimiento conservacionista para resolver los conflictos entre los partidos políticos actuales, la presión que ejerce el ser humano a nivel mundial sobre nuestros sistemas naturales y la necesidad de crear un futuro ambiental, tanto en nuestro país como en todo el mundo, que sea ético, sustentable y alcanzable? Las respuestas, creo yo, no vendrán de Washington sino de un movimiento en todo el país formado por propietarios, agencias del gobierno, organizaciones sin fines de lucro y grupos comunitarios que trabajen juntos para proteger los lugares que valoran, como el valle Blackfoot en Montana, las colinas Flint en Kansas y los valles de los ríos Connecticut y Hudson en el este del país. Para encarar proyectos populares como los mencionados, surgen ciertas propuestas que podrían contribuir a un éxito duradero y a gran escala del conservacionismo.
Trabajar a escala del paisaje
En un mundo donde la naturaleza está sometida a muchos factores de estrés y amenazas, entendemos que es improbable que porciones desconectadas de sistemas naturales puedan sobrevivir. La mayoría de las agencias federales está comenzando a pensar en estos términos, aunque todavía deben superarse numerosos obstáculos institucionales para lograr que lo que The Nature Conservancy denomina “sistemas integrales” se convierta en la forma normal de encarar esta tarea.
Utilizar varias herramientas de conservación simultáneamente
Resulta de esencial importancia integrar la preservación, la gestión tradicional del suelo tanto pública como privada y la restauración en lugares que se definan tanto por sus atributos naturales como humanos. La combinación del trabajo a gran escala y la utilización de varios enfoques sugieren que el gobierno deberá lograr un nivel de coordinación sin precedentes en cuanto a la forma en que utilizan su influencia y sus recursos.
Reconocer, respetar y cuantificar los beneficios a corto y largo plazo que la conservación puede brindar a la humanidad
Las organizaciones conservacionistas deben volverse expertas en comprender y explicar el valor de la naturaleza para dar forma al mundo del futuro. A medida que los diferentes intereses intentan encajar dentro del diseño del futuro, también deben ser capaces de representar de forma exacta la importancia que tendrán los componentes naturales de ese futuro.
No rechazar la idea de las condiciones de referencia
No siempre resulta posible mantener la naturaleza tal y como se encontraba en el pasado, pero podemos dar la más alta prioridad a la protección de aquellos lugares donde pueden continuar los procesos ecológicos, donde puede gestionarse el cambio y donde podemos, según las palabras de Mark Anderson, científico de The Nature Conservancy, “salvar el escenario, si no podemos salvar a todos los actores”.
Aprender a equilibrar la gestión de adaptación con las metas a largo plazo
Esto requiere combinar la intención de admitir los errores y adaptarnos a ellos con una coherencia de propósito y acción que resultan necesarios para influir en el futuro de grandes sistemas. Lleva tiempo llegar al tipo de consenso a largo plazo sobre la deseada condición futura que las comunidades intentan lograr. Los proyectos de conservación exitosos y creativos se prolongan durante varias décadas, no años.
Mantener leyes ambientales justas y coherentes
Los procesos normativos del medio ambiente y el uso del suelo, así como los incentivos económicos (y la falta de ellos), pueden y deberían reestructurarse de tal manera que se establezca un marco más coherente y flexible para configurar el futuro y lograr que el funcionamiento de los mercados tenga una influencia ambiental positiva. No obstante, las normas regulatorias deben mantenerse con el fin de garantizar un campo de acción equilibrado y proteger el medio ambiente y la salud del ser humano, a la vez que permita el crecimiento económico a largo plazo. Una utilización amplia de la jerarquía de mitigación (evitar, minimizar, compensar) podría ser muy útil en este caso. Este enfoque sobre la ubicación de la infraestructura y el desarrollo puede permitir las inversiones y el crecimiento económico al tiempo que brinda beneficios netos a la naturaleza.
Tomar más medidas para garantizar la participación de los ciudadanos y las distintas partes interesadas en la planificación del futuro
Si nuestra sociedad no sólo protege a la naturaleza sino que está creando un mundo futuro, entonces todos tenemos un derecho, y yo diría, una responsabilidad, aún mayor para involucrarnos en el establecimiento de dichas metas. Ya no vivimos en una sociedad basada en un centro que toma las decisiones. La mayoría de las decisiones es el resultado de acciones individuales interconectadas, y los ciudadanos necesitan un renovado sentido de poder de decisión a la hora de determinar el carácter de los lugares donde viven, trabajan y se esparcen. El conservacionismo también se convertirá en un proceso más descentralizado, con una orientación de abajo hacia arriba. La participación de la juventud es de particular importancia y las cuestiones ambientales deben darse a conocer entre los residentes de las áreas metropolitanas del país donde vive la gran mayoría de los estadounidenses.
Identificar, capacitar y guiar a una nueva generación de líderes conservacionistas locales
Una nueva generación de conservacionistas con aptitudes para trabajar en diferentes áreas de interés permitirá crear un futuro en el que se combinen las necesidades del medio ambiente y de la economía a largo plazo.
Solución compartida de problemas
De más está decir que todo lo anteriormente mencionado podría poner a la conservación creativa en el fuego cruzado entre aquellos que no le dan importancia a la naturaleza y los que temen que cambiar algo en las normas ambientales o en la protección de los terrenos públicos daría lugar a un cambio cataclísmico. Sin embargo, estos pasos podrían llevarnos a soluciones prácticas respecto del impasse político cada vez mayor que experimenta el país respecto a la conservación y el medio ambiente. Y la razón central de este impasse es la creencia compartida de que hemos perdido el control del futuro de nuestras familias y comunidades y que nos hemos convertido en víctimas de acciones de fuerzas lejanas.
La conservación creativa llevada a cabo de manera correcta puede darnos a todos un rol significativo a la hora de dar forma al futuro de los lugares que nos son más caros, es decir, donde se encuentran nuestros hogares. Además, ofrece dos beneficios que pueden conllevar una tracción política poderosa: la oportunidad de tener mejores lugares para vivir, trabajar y visitar que proporcionen beneficios tangibles a nuestras vidas, y el sentido de respeto y dignidad implícito en nuestra tarea de ayudar a determinar el futuro de los lugares que amamos.
Un enfoque de este estilo podría poner en marcha la política ambiental tanto de conservadores como de liberales hacia una forma compartida de resolver los problemas. En cuanto a los conservadores: ¿Se oponen a la planificación del futuro o solamente a la planificación realizada por sus oponentes? ¿Estarían dispuestos a incluir las esperanzas de los ciudadanos en cuanto a sus propias comunidades como una parte legítima de un futuro menos gubernamental y más regido por el mercado que les gustaría ver? Con respecto a los liberales: ¿Estarían dispuestos a confiar en que las personas que trabajan la tierra tomen más decisiones acerca del destino de nuestro suelo y nuestra agua, o también están en realidad más interesados en un control centralizado para lograr su propia visión de lo que debería hacerse? La oportunidad de trabajar juntos para crear buenos futuros para los lugares reales que rodean nuestras vidas ¿puede convertirse en el terreno común, literal y simbólico, que pueda sanar algunas de las divisiones de nuestra sociedad?
El arco de piedra en la entrada norte de Yellowstone se erigió en conmemoración de la creación del parque y posee una inscripción que reza: “Para el beneficio y goce de las personas”. Theodore Roosevelt colocó la piedra angular del arco cuando visitó Yellowstone en 1904, en un momento en que los estadounidenses veían al gobierno como un protector del bien común. Yellowstone era un ejemplo de ese espíritu.
No obstante hoy, en pleno siglo XXI, me parece que el arco de la entrada también tiene un importante mensaje: el de mirar fuera del parque, pasando por el valle Paradise donde el río Yellowstone se dirige hacia el río Missouri, el Mississippi y el golfo de México. El desafío de conservación que tenemos por delante, contra todas las probabilidades y nos guste o no, es crear un futuro para el beneficio de las personas, basado en el respeto y la comprensión de los diferentes valores de la naturaleza, en muchos más lugares de los Estados Unidos.
Si el enfoque se hiciera de esta manera en cada lugar del país, los estadounidenses con diferentes puntos de vista podrían unir esfuerzos para la causa del conservacionismo, no sólo como algo en lo que pensar en las vacaciones ni como un lujo sino como un fundamento duradero para una vida más saludable, segura, próspera y espiritualmente gratificante para nuestros hijos y nietos.
Sobre el autor
Bob Bendick es director de Relaciones del Gobierno de los EE.UU. en The Nature Conservancy, Washington, DC.
Referencias
Leopold, Aldo. 1966 [1949]. A Sand County almanac: With essays on conservation from Round River. Nueva York: Oxford University Press.
Marris, Emma. 2011. Rambunctious garden: Saving nature in a post-wild world. Nueva York: Bloomsbury Press.
Como consecuencia del huracán Sandy, la mayor frecuencia de eventos climáticos extremos y el aumento del nivel del mar, la vulnerabilidad de las ciudades y pueblos costeros se ha convertido en una cuestión de urgencia. Pero los desastres pueden suponer también oportunidades de innovación. Después de Sandy, se ha comenzado a ensayar una serie nueva de iniciativas, herramientas, políticas, marcos de gobierno e incentivos, e incluso concursos como el de Reconstrucción por Diseño (Rebuild by Design o RBD) Este concurso, promovido por el Grupo de Trabajo de Reconstrucción después del Huracán Sandy y el Departamento de Vivienda y Desarrollo Urbano (HUD) de los Estados Unidos, usa el diseño como herramienta clave para crear estrategias integradas para construir resiliencia, sostenibilidad y habitabilidad.
Después de que HUD anunció los ganadores en junio, Land Lines habló sobre RBD con Helen Lochhead, arquitecta y diseñadora urbana y paisajista, y fellow Lincoln/Loeb de 2014 en la Escuela de Posgrado de Diseño de la Universidad de Harvard y el Instituto Lincoln. Anteriormente fue Directora Ejecutiva de Desarrollo del Sitio en la Autoridad Costera del Puerto de Sídney. También es profesora adjunta en la Universidad de Sídney.
Land Lines: ¿En qué manera fue distinto el huracán Sandy de otras tormentas en los Estados Unidos?
Helen Lochhead: Sandy causó daños sin precedentes y puso en evidencia la vulnerabilidad de las ciudades y pueblos costeros a eventos climáticos extremos más frecuentes. Dados los costos económicos, que alcanzaron 65 mil millones de dólares, y el desmesurado número de víctimas humanas —más de 117 muertes y 200.000 personas desplazadas de sus hogares— quedó claro desde el principio del proceso de recuperación que reconstruir lo que existía antes no era una opción viable.
Todos los niveles de gobierno —federal, estatal y municipal— expresaron claramente el imperativo de aumentar la resiliencia de las áreas afectadas por Sandy en Nueva York, Nueva Jersey y Connecticut. Para garantizar que la región triestatal tuviera un mejor desempeño la próxima vez, se reconoció que teníamos que construir en forma diferente. Como cada dólar gastado en mitigación y preparación puede ahorrar cuatro dólares más adelante en gastos de reconstrucción después de desastres, las entidades gubernamentales están ensayando una gama de iniciativas nuevas, como por ejemplo concursos para promover la resiliencia mediante planificación y diseños innovadores, tales como RBD.
Land Lines: ¿En qué se diferenció RBD de otros esfuerzos de recuperación y concursos de diseño?
Helen Lochhead: La concurso RBD identificó el diseño como herramienta clave para poder resistir eventos climáticos extremos, con la posibilidad de reorientar las preguntas y desarrollar nuevos paradigmas que desafíen el status quo. Los diseñadores son colaboradores, visualizadores y sintetizadores. RBD les dio la oportunidad de analizar los temas y construir escenarios de maneras nuevas y distintas.
El enfoque de RBD también fue regional. El huracán Sandy superó los límites políticos, así que el concurso se propuso abordar vulnerabilidades estructurales y medioambientales que la tormenta puso en evidencia en todas las áreas afectadas. También prometió reforzar nuestro conocimiento de las interdependencias regionales, fomentando la coordinación y resiliencia tanto a nivel local como nacional.
La estrategia de adquisición también fue distinta. El modelo estándar para los concursos federales de diseño es definir un problema existente, escribir un resumen y solicitar soluciones a los mejores expertos en el campo. Pero un problema de una escala y complejidad sin precedentes como Sandy no se puede definir fácilmente hasta que se haya comprendido en todas sus dimensiones. Esto toma tiempo. Este territorio virgen sugirió la necesidad de hacerse preguntas abiertas y de utilizar un enfoque interdisciplinario y multijurisdiccional.
Primero, una combinación única de socios de proyecto —el Grupo de Trabajo de Reconstrucción después del Huracán Sandy del Presidente Obama y HUD, en colaboración con el Instituto de Conocimiento Público (Institute for Public Knowledge o IPK), la Sociedad Municipal de Artes (Municipal Art Society o MAS), la Asociación de Planes Regionales (Regional Plan Association o RPA), y el Instituto Van Alen (Van Alen Institute o VAI), con el respaldo económico de la Fundación Rockefeller y otras fundaciones importantes— contrataron a un diverso grupo de talento. En vez de limitar el campo de acción, los socios de proyecto armaron equipos integrados por pensadores interdisciplinarios y colaborativos para abordar una amplia gama de ideas y enfoques, y crear estrategias más holísticas.
Segundo, el proceso del concurso propiamente dicho fue distinto. Su duración, de ocho meses en total, fue breve, claro y concentrado. El proceso involucró investigación y diseño para abordar los temas de interés y maximizar el alcance y la extensión de las ideas por medio de paradigmas abiertos de innovación. El proceso fue colaborativo, gobernado por la investigación y con un intercambio abierto de información, para poder refinar mejor la naturaleza y el alcance de los complejos desafíos regionales, y desarrollar soluciones de diseño comprehensivas.
Tercero, RBD reservó fondos de Subsidios Globales de Desarrollo Comunitario (Community Development Block Grants, CDBG-DR) de HUD —concretamente 920 millones de dólares— para ayudar a implementar los proyectos y propuestas ganadoras. Normalmente, los acreedores de las subvenciones tienen que desarrollar planes de acción sólo después de haber recibido estos fondos. Pero RBD cambió este procedimiento informalmente, promoviendo propuestas innovadoras antes de otorgar el dinero. De esa manera, los dólares federales se convirtieron en un catalizador de innovación, así como un mecanismo para facilitar la implementación. Se alentó también a los equipos a que consiguieran su propio financiamiento para el desarrollo adicional de diseños, impulsando una extensión de sus tareas y del alcance del proyecto.
Finalmente, RBD interactuó con comunidades, organizaciones sin fines de lucro, entidades gubernamentales y dirigentes locales, estatales y federales a todos los niveles para construir nuevas coaliciones de respaldo y capacidad en paralelo con cada propuesta de diseño.
Land Lines: ¿Cuán efectivo fue RBD como vehículo para impulsar la innovación y resiliencia en la región? ¿Y cuáles son las posibilidades y desafíos más importantes de este tipo de proceso liderado por diseño?
Helen Lochhead: No sabremos por un tiempo si RBD generará innovaciones que preparen y adapten mejor a la región al cambio climático, o si los proyectos se podrán implementar y aprovechar exitosamente para construir resiliencia en otras comunidades vulnerables. No obstante, es posible identificar dónde el concurso ha demostrado innovación y un impacto potencial más allá de los procesos normales.
La mera cantidad de participantes, la gama de disciplinas y las estructuras de equipos integrados facilitaron una multiplicidad de ideas y enfoques, y también estrategias más holísticas. De un total de 148 propuestas, RBD seleccionó 10 equipos de diseño multidisciplinarios para investigar y desarrollar una gama de propuestas. Estos finalistas incluyeron más de 200 expertos, principalmente en las disciplinas de planificación, diseño, ingeniería y ecología.
La fase de investigación multifacética, que comenzó en agosto de 2013, también diferenció el proceso del concurso desde el comienzo. Los equipos se sumergieron en investigaciones basadas en diseño, debates sobre temas específicos y excursiones de campo a áreas afectadas por Sandy, para comprender la enormidad del desafío. El Instituto de Conocimiento Público (IPK) se hizo cargo de esta etapa, como manera de abordar una amplia variedad de temas, recabar las opiniones de la comunidad local y realizar trabajo de campo. Las investigaciones del IPK identificaron vulnerabilidades y riesgos, para los que los equipos de diseño podían proponer alternativas mejores y más resilientes. Este marco de acción permitió que los equipos de proyecto no sólo identificaran, comprendieran y respondieran a los problemas centrales, sino que también definieran oportunidades y generaran posibles escenarios. El proceso también facilitó el intercambio de investigaciones e ideas entre los distintos equipos.
Los diseñadores realizaron amplios estudios de precedentes, examinaron buenas prácticas globales, y se reunieron con miembros de la comunidad para recabar su opinión sobre las soluciones más efectivas en el contexto local. Así identificaron tanto enfoques nuevos y emergentes de protección costera, financiamiento, políticas y planificación del uso del suelo, como modelos de comunicación que fueron prometedores en otros contextos y quizás se pudieran adaptar a las regiones afectadas por Sandy. Una de las claves de exploración fueron las herramientas visuales. Los equipos ensayaron escenarios usando herramientas de generación de mapas por SIG para compilar, sintetizar y comunicar datos complejos. Las visualizaciones tridimensionales ayudaron a ilustrar varias opciones y estimular a las partes interesadas.
No se puede subestimar el poder de las propuestas impulsadas por diseño como medio para traducir problemas intangibles en soluciones reales que las partes interesadas puedan comprender y discutir de manera significativa.
Land Lines: Usted mencionó que RBD construyó nuevas coaliciones de respaldo. ¿De qué manera fue distinto el alcance?
Helen Lochhead: Se seleccionaron diez ideas para el desarrollo de diseños en octubre, comenzando la etapa final del concurso. Los equipos trabajaron de cerca con MAS, RPA y VAI para transformar sus ideas de diseño en proyectos viables que inspiraran la cooperación de políticos, comunidades y entidades gubernamentales en toda la región, facilitando así la implementación y el financiamiento. Debido al enfoque regional de estos proyectos de gran alcance, el papel de los socios de proyecto fue clave para poder congregar las redes locales que frecuentemente tenían intereses distintos.
Fue esencial construir coaliciones para asegurar que el enfoque era no sólo integral sino también inclusivo. Más importante aún fue el respaldo de base para implementar y crear el impulso necesario para concretar los proyectos a largo plazo, ya que inevitablemente algunos serán ejecutados más adelante a medida que se disponga de fondos.
Land Lines: ¿Cuáles fueron algunos de los temas clave abordados por las propuestas?
Helen Lochhead: La lógica primordial de las propuestas es que, para poder obtener el mayor beneficio y valor, la inversión no tiene que confrontar solamente el riesgo de inundaciones o tormentas, sino también los efectos combinados de eventos climáticos extremos, la degradación medioambiental, la vulnerabilidad social y la susceptibilidad de las redes vitales. Al restaurar ecosistemas y crear oportunidades recreativas y económicas, los proyectos aumentarán la sostenibilidad y la resiliencia.
Las metodologías que predominaron fueron aquellos enfoques a múltiples niveles que incorporaron más infraestructura ecológica verde/azul, así como sistemas de infraestructura gris, junto con propuestas de modelos de gobernanza nuevos y más regionales, herramientas en línea, e iniciativas educativas que construyen capacidad dentro de las comunidades. Muchos proyectos demostraron soluciones localizadas que también tenían una aplicación más amplia. Todos los proyectos resaltaron las interdependencias, la coordinación y la inclusión.
Land Lines: ¿Cuáles son algunas de las innovaciones clave de los proyectos ganadores anunciados por el Secretario de Vivienda y Desarrollo Urbano (HUD), Shaun Donovan, el 2 de junio?
Helen Lochhead: El proyecto “Living Breakwaters” (“Rompeolas vivientes”) de SCAPE/Landscape Architecture podría tener aplicaciones de gran alcance si los arrecifes artificiales de ostras son exitosos. Si bien la propuesta enfrenta ciertos desafíos —se tiene que resolver todavía el permiso para operar dentro del agua y los impactos medioambientales potencialmente amplios— tiene la posibilidad de modelarse y ensayarse a una escala mucho más pequeña, siempre y cuando las comunidades locales estén de acuerdo y se cuente con expertos como la Escuela del Puerto de Nueva York para resolver los problemas de aprendizaje iniciales. De ser posible, tiene el beneficio adicional de contar con sistemas biológicos autosustentables que se reponen solos. La ingeniosidad de este esquema es el uso de un proyecto piloto para reemplazar la política y el marco regulador existente con un replanteamiento radical de las posibilidades. Las normas reguladoras imponen frecuentemente una barrera significativa a la innovación, de manera que un ensayo de pequeña escala es una inversión de bajo riesgo. Si no funciona, los efectos son mínimos; si tiene éxito, habrá superado barreras políticas importantes, abriendo el camino a nuevas metodologías de protección más ecológicas contra tormentas.
La propuesta “New Meadowlands: Productive + Regional Park” (“Ciudad productiva y parque regional de Nuevas praderas”) de MIT CAU + ZUS + URBANISTEN, para el área de Meadowlands en Nueva Jersey, es otro enfoque igualmente innovador de implementación. Es un ejemplo llamativo de infraestructura verde compuesto de bermas gruesas, multifuncionales y apaisajadas a lo largo de la costa que actúan como barrera contra inundaciones, pero también permiten la ocupación. La propuesta incluye un parque regional productivo, con bermas y humedales rodeando el curso de agua que protegen las propiedades e infraestructuras vitales de las inundaciones, reconstruye la biodiversidad y hospeda programas recreativos y sociales, así como también una combinación de emprendimientos que aprovechan la nueva zona de parques.
El proyecto también abre una oportunidad atractiva para utilizar un modelo de gobierno regional para ayudar a implementar la visión. La Comisión de Meadowlands de Nueva Jersey —que gobierna la zonificación del uso del suelo en 14 municipalidades— es un caso de estudio en colaboración intermunicipal, con poderes latentes que le permiten organizar esfuerzos de coalición sobre esta área regional. Con un poco de rediseño, podría convertirse potencialmente en una entidad ecológica y de desarrollo económico. Hay muchos impedimentos reguladores incorporados en esta propuesta, y un organismo de gobierno poderoso como éste podría potencialmente simplificarlos. La escala regional de muchas de estas propuestas hace que se crucen los límites jurisdiccionales, lo cual complica la implementación. Al identificar el potencial no aprovechado de este marco de gobierno existente, este equipo ha tomado pasos para ir superando esta importante barrera.
El proyecto “BIG U” del equipo BIG es una barrera compartimentada y multipropósito diseñada para proteger distritos vulnerables en la parte baja de Manhattan contra inundaciones y marejadas ciclónicas. El equipo se concentró en la parte oriental inferior de la isla. El proyecto integra espacios verdes y programas sociales y, a largo plazo, propone soluciones muy necesarias de transporte público. Si bien se propone resolver la falta de espacios abiertos recreativos en el barrio, no aborda adecuadamente ciertas necesidades sistémicas, como la escasez y la calidad de viviendas de interés social, el acceso a servicios y el aburguesamiento potencial que este proyecto podría acelerar.
En el condado de Nassau, Long Island, el proyecto “Living with the Bay” (“Viviendo con la bahía”) del equipo de Interboro se propone incrementar la calidad de la vida cotidiana en la región en épocas normales y al mismo tiempo abordar el riesgo de inundación. Tomadas en conjunto, estas iniciativas presentan una colección de propuestas de relativamente poco riesgo que se pueden implementar ya mismo, y que siembran las semillas de un futuro más estratégico y resiliente. En el largo plazo, se podrían realizar otras mejoras, como viviendas con mayor densidad cerca del transporte público y un nuevo fideicomiso de suelo comunitario.
La propuesta “Hunts Point Lifelines” (“Hunts Point cuerdas salvavidas”) de PennDesign/OLIN para el barrio de Bronx se enfoca en la resiliencia social y económica. Si bien el equipo tuvo en cuenta las vulnerabilidades medioambientales, su preocupación principal era el papel crítico que el Mercado de alimentos de Hunts Point juega en la comunidad local y la cadena de alimentos regional. El equipo trabajó con la comunidad y los dueños de propiedades industriales para desarrollar diseños específicos para el sitio, con protección integrada contra tormentas e infraestructura verde que ofrece un espacio social de alta calidad con componentes que se pueden fabricar localmente y construir en forma cooperativa. El proyecto demostró el potencial de la protección y ecología híbrida de los puertos que se encuentran a lo largo del estuario.
La estrategia integral para Hoboken de OMA —“Resist, Delay, Store, Discharge” (“Resistir, demorar, almacenar, descargar”)— representa un catálogo de intervenciones que incorpora una extensa infraestructura verde/azul y también una barrera de protección para la infraestructura crítica de transporte. Si bien tiene mucha similitud con el proyecto Comunidades Sostenibles de Hoboken, su punto fuerte es la metodología integral, lograda por medio de una serie de iniciativas clave que contaron con la participación de más de 40 partes interesadas en Hoboken y Jersey City, que serán esenciales para su implementación.
Land Lines: ¿Cuáles fueron los mejores aspectos de los proyectos que no ganaron?
Helen Lochhead: Los marcos de intercambio abierto de información crearon un proceso de información pública en línea, para que los equipos pudieran alcanzar a una variedad mucho más extensa de usuarios que aquellos que asisten tradicionalmente a las reuniones comunitarias. Por ejemplo, el proyecto “CrowdGauge for Rebuild” (“Calibrar para reconstruir”) de Sasaki pidió primero a los usuarios de Asbury Park, Nueva Jersey, que clasificaran una serie de prioridades. Después demostró cómo una serie de acciones y políticas podrían afectar dichas prioridades. Finalmente, entregó a los usuarios una cantidad limitada de monedas y les pidió que las “gastasen” en las acciones que más les interesaran.
Varios equipos demostraron un método de “juego de componentes”, utilizando iniciativas de desarrollo económico, juegos de herramientas de uso, y proyectos de mejora urbana en varias combinaciones, para alcanzar metas de resiliencia. La propuesta de HR&A Cooper Robertson para Red Hook, Brooklyn, es un ejemplo de este método. Con todos los componentes en su lugar, se podría utilizar una serie de estas estrategias a mayor escala y crear transformaciones y beneficios sistémicos. Dichos enfoques granulares facilitan la implementación por fases y, con el debido financiamiento, se pueden ejecutar inmediatamente y tener un impacto a distintas escalas.
El proyecto “Resilience + the Beach” (“Resiliencia + la playa”) de Sasaki/Rutgers/Arup se enfocó más tierra adentro de la costa de Nueva Jersey, en los terrenos más altos y secos, redefiniendo la zona costera como el ecosistema de seis millas de ancho entre la playa y los pinares de Nueva Jersey. Al revelar los atributos escénicos y el potencial recreativo de los cursos de agua y bosques interiores, esta estrategia fomenta el desarrollo para migrar del borde de las islas de barrera a áreas más estables tierra adentro, con el objeto de crear una economía turística más estratificada. El sitio de este proyecto es Asbury Park, pero este enfoque se puede aplicar a nivel regional, capitalizando los atributos geográficos de la costa de Nueva Jersey —los pinares, las bahías internas y las islas de barrera— para crear nuevas atracciones. La estrategia incluye una serie de medidas de infraestructura nueva verde/azul, espacios abiertos y emprendimientos, y un juego de herramientas comunitarias para educar a los propietarios sobre los riesgos locales y las opciones de resiliencia.
Otro prototipo de ciudades costeras regionales, “Resilient Bridgeport” (“Bridgeport resiliente”) de WB, es un marco de resiliencia y propuestas de diseño específicas para la región de Long Island Sound. Una serie de estrategias de diseño y principios de planificación costera, urbana y ribereña integrados proporcionan múltiples líneas de defensa para proteger Bridgeport contra inundaciones y marejadas ciclónicas, estimulando al mismo tiempo la restauración medioambiental, el desarrollo económico y la revitalización barrial, enfocándose en viviendas de interés social.
Land Lines: En suma, ¿cuáles han sido hasta ahora los éxitos más importantes del concurso?
Helen Lochhead: La urgencia del problema y el ritmo acelerado del concurso generó un nivel de intensidad, impulso y energía que dio resultados en muy poco tiempo. Muchas de las soluciones de diseño se caracterizaron por ideas ricas y cuantificadas, análisis profundos para resolver problemas y metodologías ingeniosas. El enfoque no se limitó a la recuperación y reducción de riesgo, como mitigación de inundaciones y tormentas, sino que se extendió también a la resiliencia y sostenibilidad a largo plazo. Todas las propuestas crean múltiples beneficios a nivel social, económico y medioambiental —mejoras relativas a instalaciones, ecología, educación, construcción de capacidad, ahorro de largo plazo, y salud y bienestar comunitarios— y por lo tanto tienden a ser soluciones más holísticas y de superior desempeño.
El impacto a la fecha ha sido catalizador. Como mínimo, RBD ha generado el impulso y proporcionó beneficios importantes a la región al haber iniciado una conversación sobre la resiliencia por diseño. Por supuesto, la medida real del éxito estriba en la implementación, pero hace falta un proceso robusto e innovador para provocar cambios culturales en la práctica. RBD ha dado el ejemplo.
Land Lines: ¿Cuáles serán los desafíos más importantes de implementación?
Helen Lochhead: Encontrar el justo medio entre lo visionario y lo pragmático.
El incentivo para los ganadores fue la posibilidad de implementar estos proyectos con subsidios de recuperación de desastres de HUD y otras fuentes de financiamiento públicas y privadas. Por eso, una parte clave de la fase final fue una estrategia de implementación para demostrar factibilidad, el respaldo de los beneficiarios locales de subsidios, la ejecución por fases y entregas de corto plazo que se puedan financiar con los subsidios CDBG-DR de HUD, así como con fuentes de financiamiento para etapas posteriores.
La verdadera oportunidad para HUD ahora es utilizar este proceso y sus proyectos ejemplares para beneficiar otras regiones que corren riesgo a escala nacional.
When people think of growing food in the United States, the images that come to mind are vast stretches of vegetable and fruit tree farms in California’s Central Valley, golden fields of wheat in the Plains states, and cows grazing on verdant rural landscapes in the Midwest and New England. Rarely is the image one of farming inside American cities. Yet, in an increasing number of cities today—especially those substantially affected by structural economic change and population loss over the past several decades—community-based organizations are growing food for the market on vacant lots, in greenhouses, and even in abandoned warehouses. Some of these groups market their products at local farmers markets, roadside stands, restaurants and supermarkets. Others convert their harvests into value-added products like salad dressings, jams and salsas for sale in regional markets.
A Conceptual Three-Legged Stool
Our recently completed study, supported by the Lincoln Institute, explored the characteristics of entrepreneurial urban agriculture in the U.S., key obstacles to its practice, and ways of overcoming these obstacles. The study framework can be visualized as a wobbly three-legged stool that needs to be made sturdier. One leg of the stool represents inner-city vacant land and the government agencies and their policies that affect its disposition and management. The scale of the vacant land problem in many American cities, particularly in the Midwest and Northeast, is significant. Philadelphia, for example, has an estimated 31,000 vacant lots and as many as 54,000 vacant structures that, if demolished, would add considerably to its vacant land supply. Detroit’s inventory of 46,000 city-owned vacant parcels is accompanied by an estimated 24,000 empty buildings. Even smaller cities are faced with a stockpile of vacant land. In Trenton, New Jersey, a city of 85,000 people, eighteen percent of the land is vacant. Despite the spread of gentrifying neighborhoods and new in-town developments in many cities, considerable amounts of vacant land, especially in disadvantaged neighborhoods, will likely continue to lie fallow because of limited market demand.
The second leg represents for-market urban agriculture, a movement of individuals and organizations who wish to produce food in cities for direct market sale. The initiators of these projects are a diverse group-community gardeners, community development corporations, social service providers, faith-based organizations, neighborhood organizations, high schools, animal husbandry organizations, coalitions for the homeless, farmers with a special interest in urban food production, and profit-making entrepreneurs. Proponents of for-market urban agriculture put forth a wide range of benefits, such as instilling pride and greater self-sufficiency among inner-city residents; using vacant lots in disadvantaged neighborhoods to nurture growth rather than to collect trash; supplying lower-income residents with healthier and more nutritious foods; providing local youth with jobs in producing, processing and marketing organically grown food; and reducing the amount of unproductive city-owned vacant land.
The third leg of the conceptual stool represents the institutional environment for urban agriculture within cities. Is it accommodating, neutral, skeptical or restrictive? The more that entrepreneurial urban agriculture is seen positively by local government officials, local foundations and the public, the greater the likelihood of a smoother future. But, when the institutional climate is indifferent or cool, then urban farming advocates will clearly encounter more difficulties. We found the overall climate for entrepreneurial urban agriculture to be mixed, with some supporters, many who seemed indifferent, some skeptics, and even a few who were decidedly hostile to the idea.
A Medley of Projects
Our study uncovered more than 70 for-market urban agriculture projects throughout the country. Four representative examples are summarized here.
Greensgrow Farms, Philadelphia
This small for-profit producer of hydroponically grown vegetables epitomizes the potential that agriculture offers as an urban land use. Greensgrow began in 1997, when two former chefs envisioned a practical way to meet the demand from Philadelphia restaurateurs for fresh, organically grown produce. Greensgrow occupies a three-quarter-acre site in North Philadelphia that has been cleaned of the contamination left from its former use as a galvanized steel plant. After a site lease was arranged through the New Kensington Community Development Corporation, the partners built an extensive hydroponic system to produce gourmet lettuces.
Greensgrow has since taken advantage of an EPA sustainable development grant and a donated greenhouse to grow and market lettuce, heritage tomatoes, herbs and cut flowers to 25 area restaurants after the outdoor growing season ends. The for-profit side of Greensgrow expects to break even in 2000 with revenues of $50,000. Its community-based side has hired three welfare-to-work participants and intends to develop a job training and entrepreneurial program in collaboration with the nearby Norris Square CDC.
Growing Power, Milwaukee
In some cities, farm sites may be part of a larger enterprise. For example, inner-city youth in Milwaukee are providing horticulture and landscaping services on a number of central city sites under the auspices of Growing Power, Inc., which is co-directed by an African-American farmer and a woman active in youth gardening and training. The organization aims to help inner-city youngsters attain life skills by cultivating and marketing organic produce, and to operate a community food center that can serve the broader community through education and innovative programming.
Growing Power’s nerve center, on a 1.7-acre site on Milwaukee’s north side, is a collection of five renovated greenhouses that were in dilapidated condition when purchased from the city in 1992. The center also features a farmstand, a vegetable garden and fruit trees, and an area where food waste from a local supermarket is being converted into compost. The greenhouses contain thousands of starter vegetable and flower plants, ten three-tank aquaculture systems (where tilapia, a freshwater fish, grow in inexpensive 55-gallon plastic barrels) and a vermiculture project consisting of wooden bins in which worm castings are collected by youngsters and sold back to Growing Power for use in its city gardens. Marketing some of its products to the public is also part of Growing Power’s mission.
The Food Project/DSNI Collaboration, Boston
The Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative, a well-known example of community organization and empowerment, considers urban agriculture essential to the transformation of its section of Roxbury into an urban village. Since 1993, this effort has been aided by DSNI’s collaboration with The Food Project, based in the Boston suburb of Lincoln. Like Growing Power, The Food Project aims to link youth development with the enhancement of urban food security. Its core activity is a summer program involving up to 60 high school students, some from the suburbs and some from Roxbury, in cultivating organic produce on a 21-acre farm in Lincoln and on two parcels within DSNI’s target area.
Collards, tomatoes and herbs now grow within sight of the new housing units developed by DSNI’s associated organizations. Much of the harvest is sold at a weekly farmers’ market in the nearby Dudley Town Common. The young farmers have become proficient at presenting their activities to Bostonians visiting the market and at youth gatherings nationwide. For the future, DSNI and The Food Project have identified other sites in Roxbury on which to expand urban food production. In addition, DSNI will convert a former garage in the neighborhood into a 10,000 square foot community greenhouse.
Village Farms, Buffalo
A corporate presence in urban agriculture is rare, but a notable exception is Village Farms in Buffalo. The goal of Village Farms’ parent corporation, AgroPower Development (APD), is simply to maximize profits, although it does provide jobs for central city residents. In its 18-acre greenhouse, the company uses a Dutch growing method whereby tomato plants are grown in porous, rock-wool blocks to produce up to eight million pounds of tomatoes a year, which are marketed primarily to area supermarkets.
A number of incentives lured Village Farms to a vacant 35-acre industrial site close to the downtown that sits in both a federal Enterprise Zone and a city economic development district. Although APD does not release sales figures, it is satisfied with the operation and hopes to replicate it in other cities. For its part, the city of Buffalo points to Village Farms as a success story-an innovative, nonpolluting business that is using vacated industrial land.
Overcoming Obstacles
The obstacles to urban agriculture can be formidable, but persistence, organizational capacity, political savvy, outside support, and some good fortune have demonstrated that they are not insurmountable.
Site-related Obstacles
Several critical problems in producing food inside cities are tied to attributes of the sites themselves. First, vacant urban parcels give visible and sometimes less-visible evidence of past use. While they may be cleared of debris and rubble, almost all sites have some subsurface contaminants that may affect the safety of any produce harvested. This obstacle can be overcome through several approaches that together have come to characterize urban agriculture practice. Planting crops in raised beds of clean, imported soil is the most straightforward approach, and is less costly than the more involved practice of amending existing urban “soil” with truckloads of compost and humus. Soil-free hydroponic practices avoid the contamination issue, as in the elaborate Greensgrow system that sits four feet above cracked concrete, and give urban agriculture the cutting-edge feel displayed at Village Farms.
A second, more challenging site-related obstacle is lack of tenure, since the majority of urban agriculture activities are on sites owned by private landowners or public agencies who view urban food production as a temporary use. This is a common concern for community gardeners, and has carried over into entrepreneurial city farming endeavors. One solution is represented by the growing number of open space land trusts that acquire title to properties on which urban farming is already being practiced.
The logic of the urban land market results in a third site-related obstacle-the view that the value of a vacant parcel is primarily economic and that urban agriculture produces low revenues compared to other forms of land development. One way to overcome this perception is to emphasize that most urban agriculture activities are initiated by non-profit organizations for the community good. Thus, city farming should be seen by the public as a combination of earned revenue (in the case of market operations) and less quantifiable social benefits that are equally if not more important to the larger community interest.
Perceptual Obstacles
The greatest overall obstacle to urban agriculture is skepticism among those who, in different ways, can support and influence its initiation and practice-local government, private landowners, financial supporters and community residents. Their skepticism is based on either a simple lack of awareness or the conventional means of valuing urban land based on market factors. Another group of concerns reflects doubts about the wisdom of growing food in cities because of site contamination, security and vandalism, or the “highest and best land use” argument. A related perception is simply that agriculture is a rural activity that does not belong in the city.
A key to effectively overcoming these perceptions is to understand that the future of city farming depends on the level of acceptance and support it can garner from institutions such as local and state governments, the federal government, local philanthropic foundations, CDCs, the media and neighborhood organizations. Time after time, the city farming advocates we interviewed stressed the importance of “packaging” their activities to decision makers and the public so that the multiple benefits could be seen and valued clearly.
Conclusion
Both vision and reality informed this study. The vision foresees a scenario where vacant land in parts of American cities would be transformed into bountiful food-producing areas managed by energetic community organizations that market some or all of the food they grow for the benefit of community residents. Proponents of such a vision would clearly like to see urban farming’s small footprint enlarged in cities with increased supplies of vacant land. The reality, however, is more sobering. Many for-market urban agriculture projects are underfunded, understaffed, and confronted with difficult management and marketing issues. Nor is urban agriculture on the radar screens of many city government officials as a viable use of vacant inner-city land.
Yet, signs of a more hopeful reality are apparent. A diverse array of innovative for-market city farming ventures are making their presence known, and pockets of support for city farming are found among local and higher-level government officials, community organizations, city residents and local foundations in several cities. Some entrepreneurial urban agriculture projects are beginning to show small profits, while many more are providing an array of social, aesthetic, health and community-building benefits. The legs of the nascent movement of for-market city farming are gradually becoming sturdier.
Reference
Kaufman, Jerry and Martin Bailkey. 2000. “Farming Inside Cities: Entrepreneurial Urban Agriculture in the United States.” Lincoln Institute Working Paper.
Jerry Kaufman, AICP, is a professor in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He teaches and does research on older American cities and community food system planning. Martin Bailkey, a senior lecturer in the Department of Landscape Architecture at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, is conducting research on how community organizations gain access to vacant land in U.S. cities.
The Lincoln Institute is collaborating with the city of Cordoba, Argentina, on a major project to change approaches to and instruments used for physical planning in the city. Cordoba presents an especially interesting case because of its strategic location at the center of the core development area of Mercosur.
The first phase of the project was a three-day seminar held last April titled “Towards an Urban Integrated Management: Implementing a Strategic Plan for the City of Cordoba.” Its main aim was to bring together the principal “actors” in Cordoba to discuss and debate planning goals and instruments in the context of new developments in urban management.
The seminar included presentations by international experts and discussions among municipal officials, developers, business and commercial interests, non-governmental organizations and planning practitioners. The Institute played an important role in providing an open forum for the local participants to come together for the first time to discuss difficult planning and development issues and to begin the process of establishing new management policies and procedures.
Three principal themes emerged from the discussions. The first dealt with prioritizing land to be urbanized, with particular concern for equitable access to land, infrastructure, and housing for the popular sectors, as well as appropriate mechanisms to carry out integrated planning on a regional basis. The second theme addressed environmental and fiscal impacts of large commercial establishments on existing urban structures, historic districts and residential neighborhoods. The third theme focused on various actors and sectors involved in industrial development in Cordoba, with attention given to dispersal of industry, infrastructure limitations, and social and environmental costs.
In addition to giving the Cordovan participants a broad perspective on urban management issues in other cities, the seminar raised two important points: 1) that planning for development is not just about regulation or land use control, but that fiscal and taxation policies are equally important in affecting land values; and 2) that local officials must learn to assess benefits and costs of urban planning projects in order to deal effectively with private sector developers.
The seminar has already had specific impacts on collaborative commercial activities in the historic center and on improved management programs for providing new infrastructure and services while also reducing deficits. In addition, the program stimulated participants to develop an appreciation for the importance of long-term strategic planning in charting general directions for policy changes and in understanding the effects of particular kinds of development on the social and physical environment.
The Institute is continuing to work with municipal officials to help develop new management paradigms that can support more effective private/public collaborations and better analytical and planning techniques. Follow-up programs will assist policymakers and private developers (operating in both formal and informal markets) in better understanding the functioning of urban land markets and the consequences of policy changes for urban development.
The next course on “Land Market Behavior in Cordoba: Implications for the Urban Structure” will explore research on formal land markets in Cordoba, stressing the effects of economic policies and local government interventions. It will be followed by a regional seminar where experience will be shared with participants from at least three other countries. At the same time, the Institute and Cordoba officials are developing a training program directed to a broad spectrum of local and regional officials and developers, concentrating on general management, urban planning, and project preparation and implementation.
Douglas Keare is a visiting fellow of the Lincoln Institute. He has extensive experience in strategic planning for large cities in developing countries through previous research and project management at the World Bank and the Harvard Institute for International Development. Ricardo Vanella is director of the Department of Economic Development for the city of Cordoba.
A conservation easement is private land, held by a private nonprofit corporation (typically a land trust) or a government agency. Though conservation easements are perceived as a win-win land protection strategy, there are several downfalls in their design—requiring this fairly new real estate law to come under increased scrutiny.
Conservation easements leave the land in private ownership and often achieve the goals of land protection without regulation or adversity, and usually without any government oversight. There is often concern that the terms of the conservation easement will be honored and that the conservation easement holder will have the capacity and resolve to monitor, enforce and defend the restrictions of the conservation easement in perpetuity, as conservation easements promise.
Because conservation easements are privately held property, most states have no public registry for conservation easements, no particular legal structure and no public review, transparency or accountability concerning their design, monitoring, enforcement, defense or stewardship.
This article identifies issues with the current practices for conservation easements and seeks solutions for the future of the conservation easement. Should their be standards enforced by federal or state governments? Should more responsibility be placed on the land owners? How would new regulations affect the use of the land? If conservation easements are to serve future generations as is their promise, they will have to resolve the issues they face.
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No recent happening in land conservation rivals the deployment from coast to coast of conservation easements. Beyond tax and other public subsidies, one of the driving forces favoring this phenomenon is that conservation easements are perceived as a win-win strategy in land protection, by which willing landowners work with private land trusts or government agencies to provide lasting protection for portions of the American landscape. Conservation easements leave land in private ownership, while allowing the easement holder (the land trust or agency) to enforce voluntary, contracted-for, often donated but increasingly paid-for restrictions on future uses of the easement-encumbered property. Conservation easements are often welcomed as achieving the goals of land protection without regulation or adversity, and usually without any government oversight.
At the same time, the rapid increase in the use of conservation easements raises the concern that they may present something of a time bomb that requires preventive action. Most of the laws and conventions concerning conservation easements were created at a time when no one could have foreseen their explosive growth and complexity. These laws and conventions require well-considered approaches to reform, lest we ultimately risk losing the public benefits that we thought conservation easements would secure in the future.
Definitions
A “conservation easement” (in some states referred to as a conservation restriction or similar term) is a set of permanently enforceable rights in real property, held by a private nonprofit corporation (typically a land trust) or a government agency. These rights impose a negative servitude (in other words, a set of promises not to do certain things) on the encumbered land, and they are permanently enforceable by the easement holder. Conservation easements are a relatively recent invention of real estate law and are enabled by statute in virtually every state.
A “land trust” is a loosely defined concept that usually includes at least two basic elements. First, it is a private, nonprofit charitable corporation incorporated under the laws of a state and qualified as tax-exempt and entitled to receive tax-deductible donations under section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Second, depending on state law, a land trust’s mission, but not necessarily its exclusive or even primary one, is the conservation of land.
The Public Stake in Conservation Easements
Why should the public, and therefore its government at all levels, care about how conservation easements are created and managed? One reason is that virtually every conservation easement is associated with a significant public subsidy. Although most easements are donated by private landowners to private land trusts, they almost always result in public subsidies in the form of income tax deductions to the easement donors. In many cases a further subsidy comes in the form of reduced real property and estate taxes in the future. Increasingly, conservation easements are being purchased with public money, sometimes on a grand scale involving millions of dollars.
The public should care about how its money is being spent, whether it is being spent for something of long-term public benefit, and whether it is being spent efficiently; that is, the public should be interested in whether it is getting a fair public bang for its buck.
Beyond the public’s financial investment, its interest in conservation easements as a form of charitable trust transcends the interests of the private parties to the transaction. Further, some conservation easements guarantee public access to the property, such as for hiking or scenic enjoyment, giving the public an added stake in the long-term security of the easement. In the case of conservation easements granted by developers as a quid pro quo for regulatory permits, these easements may also comprise a public investment because they are part of the consideration in exchange for the right to proceed with a project that may cause environmental harm. Finally and not least importantly, the public has an abiding concern in the orderly future of legal understandings and the stability of interests in real estate.
In sum, when a conservation easement is created there is a legitimate public interest and concern that the terms of the easement will be honored and that the easement holder will have the capacity and resolve to monitor, enforce and defend the restrictions of the easement in perpetuity, as conservation easements promise. Indeed, the very purpose of state and federal laws that support and subsidize the creation of conservation easements is that the public interest is intended to permanently benefit from them.
Trends and Problems
Rapid growth. The attractiveness of conservation easements is demonstrated by the explosive growth of land trusts established to accept easements. Land trusts have become a big business in America, both for their vast holdings of conservation easements and other properties and for their increasing memberships and finances. Even so, many land trusts have come into existence only during the past 15 years and operate at a local level. While land trust creation continues to increase rapidly, an important policy question is whether the ever-expanding number of small land trusts throughout the nation is something that is good for our (and their) future.
The Land Trust Alliance (LTA), an organization that serves many land trusts nationwide, reported in its national census that between 1998 and 2003 the number of local and regional land trusts increased 26 percent from 1,213 to 1,526; the number of conservation easements held by these land trusts grew from 7,400 to nearly 18,000; and the area covered by these easements expanded from nearly 1.4 million acres to more than 5 million acres (Land Trust Alliance 2004; see Figures 1 and 2). In addition, there are a number of national organizations, such as The Nature Conservancy and the American Farmland Trust, that hold additional thousands of conservation easements. Untold thousands of easements also are held by federal, state and local governments.
Often land trusts and government agencies alike focus on, publicize and celebrate the accumulating numbers of conservation easements in their portfolios, as well as the numbers of acres that they cover, without equivalent regard for the quality of the easements or of the lands they protect. Since conservation easements bring with them long-term and costly responsibilities for the holder in monitoring, stewardship, enforcement and defense, this focus on numbers can be short-term thinking that leads to long-term problems.
Lack of uniformity. The terms of conservation easements are infinitely variable. Calling something a conservation easement tells one nothing about what protections it affords or even what legal boilerplate it includes. Many conservation easement advocates extol the virtues of this flexibility, since it allows the landowner and easement holder to tailor each easement to their mutual interests.
However, this increasing variability of conservation easements inevitably will result in more problems over time for both easement holders and future successions of landowners in understanding, undertaking, monitoring, defending and upholding all of the legal rights and responsibilities of each easement. Heightening this effect is the fact that many conservation easements are increasingly negotiated, nuanced and complex agreements, leaving even legal experts challenged in easement preparation, interpretation, oversight and enforcement.
Valuation issues. The valuation problem for conservation easements arises in two forms: the opportunity for excessive claims of income, estate and property tax deductions or reductions; and uncertainty as to the societal and cost-benefit calculus of each easement. The valuation of donated conservation easements has become a major cause for alarm by the Internal Revenue Service, which says that it will be applying an increasingly watchful eye on the deductions taken for these donations. However, part of the problem may be that the IRS has not been precise enough in stating how conservation easement appraisals should be undertaken.
Even if the IRS adopts a more rigorous approach to easement appraisal in the future, it will never be in a good position to determine whether each easement, for which a charitable deduction is taken, is worthy in terms of conferring a public benefit commensurate with the public subsidy. That task must be undertaken by others, starting with the land trust or other easement holder and embracing some degree of broader public participation.
Lack of legal standards. While conservation easements are intended to be permanent servitudes on privately held property, most states have no public registry for conservation easements, no particular legal structure and no public review, transparency or accountability with respect to their design, monitoring, enforcement, defense or stewardship. Accordingly, there may be a growing disconnect, or perhaps it is a correlation, between the massive deployment of these new interests in real estate, their nearly infinite variability and the multitude of new-born land trusts that hold them on the one hand, and the largely undisciplined laws and conventions that govern them on the other.
In sum, potential legal and other reforms should be considered to respond to many diverse issues related to conservation easements.
This state of affairs, already evident in many thousands of conservation easements, cannot serve future generations well. Under the present laws and conventions, how can we expect holders of these easements and succeeding generations of landowners to understand, no less attend to, the often subtle differences in their terms and to comply with, uphold, defend and enforce conservation easements forever?
Although the nearly exponential trends in the deployment of conservation easements may be heartening to many in the land conservation community, they also pose equivalent challenges that require critical examination and consideration of reform. The evident solution is to create standards for conservation easements and their holders that are more uniform, explicit, publicly transparent and rigorous. Doing so would be in the long-term best interests of those in the conservation easement community and the public at large.
Potential Solutions
Among the general approaches to reform are changes to federal tax laws; greater state oversight of conservation easements and their holders; increased self-regulation by the land trust community; consolidation and networking of land trusts; and greater supervision of conservation easements and their holders by funding sources. The purpose of advancing these reform ideas is to create more predictability and stability in the design and long-term management of conservation easements, so there can be a greater degree of assurance that these new inventions of real estate law will deliver on the promises that they make to future generations.
The most universal approach to reform would be to create more rigorous IRS standards for conservation easements, their appraisals and their holders, so there is greater assurance that their public subsidy will result in conservation easements that are permanently monitored and enforced. A second and complementary approach would be for the National Conference of Commissioners, which gave birth to the Uniform Conservation Easement Act in 1981, to reconvene and consider the issues that went unresolved in its earlier work. A third approach would be for each state to consider amendments to its conservation easement enabling act that respond to these issues. Finally, the Land Trust Alliance is already making efforts to inform and encourage its members to take affirmative but voluntary action to resolve many of these concerns.
Even while considering needed change, these reforms should not impose unreasonable transaction costs on conservation easements. The goal is to select reforms that are efficient in making a difference. At the same time, it is important to consider the tremendous and increasing public subsidies of conservation easements, their opportunity costs and potential effects on government regulatory and land acquisition programs. This scrutiny is not a condemnation of conservation easements, but rather is aimed at articulating issues and possible reforms that can make easements deliver their promises.
Conclusions
This should be an uneasy time for those in the conservation easement community. Because of alleged abuses widely reported by the media, both Congress and the IRS are investigating easement practices by their donors and holders. Congressional proposals are emerging to substantially reduce tax incentives for donations of conservation easements. The time is right to explore potentially useful reforms of all kinds in order to avoid throwing the baby out with the bathwater.
The principal source of many issues with conservation easements is the laws and conventions that govern these interests in real estate, which were created at a time when no one could have anticipated the explosive growth of easements and land trusts. While national organizations like the Land Trust Alliance have shown outstanding leadership in devising and promoting standards, practices and other assistance for land trusts, these standards are purely voluntary, and land trusts have no legal obligation to follow them. Moreover, in some cases the worst problems with respect to long-term management of conservation easements involve understaffed or inattentive government holders.
How dire is the future of conservation easements? Just as conservation easements are intended to endure, each of the problems reported here will have its day, and some already have. When evaluating the effectiveness of conservation easements under the prevailing legal structure, perhaps the best answer is that the jury will be out for 100 years, but one should be sufficiently concerned about a possibly adverse verdict to consider these issues and ways to resolve them.
If conservation easements are to serve future generations as is their promise, they will have to live up to three essential principles.
With these principles in mind, there are many approaches to resolving the issues presented by conservation easements. However, to fashion the solutions one must first acknowledge the problems. If ever we are to take action to assure the future of conservation easements, the time to do so may never be better, nor easier, than now.
Jeff Pidot is a visiting fellow at the Lincoln Institute, on leave from his work as chief of the Natural Resources Division of the Maine Attorney General’s Office, a position he has held since 1990. He has been an active participant in the land trust movement in Maine and has a wealth of experience with conservation easements in both his professional and volunteer work. While at the Lincoln Institute, he is researching and writing about the challenges of conservation easements and reforms that may be considered to meet these challenges.
His working paper, Reinventing Conservation Easements: A Critical Examination and Ideas for Reform, is available on the Institute’s website.
Reference
Land Trust Alliance. 2004. National Land Trust Census. November 18 http://www.lta.org/census/index.shtml
Faculty Profile of Carla J. Robinson
Según la tradición impuesta por los anteriores coloquios sobre conservación, un grupo de conservacionistas provenientes de diferentes sectores y regiones geográficas se reunieron con el fin de ir un paso más adelante, en sintonía con el informe recientemente emitido por el gobierno del presidente Obama sobre “Grandes paisajes de los Estados Unidos” (Consejo sobre Calidad Ambiental 2011), y con un sinfín de iniciativas a nivel estatal y municipal. El objetivo de la jornada fue lograr avances en la colaboración entre propietarios, administradores de suelos y ciudadanos tanto del sector público como privado, sin fines de lucro y académico, en lo que respecta a la conservación de grandes paisajes, así como comprender y ampliar sus conocimientos teniendo en cuenta el ejemplo dado por las diferentes iniciativas de conservación de grandes paisajes que están logrando resultados de conservación medibles y duraderos, lo que redundará en beneficios para las generaciones futuras.
De la misma manera que ahora podemos apreciar el resurgimiento de las White Mountains en Nueva Hampshire –desde su imagen desértica, similar a un paisaje lunar en 1900 a su condición actual, majestuosa y exuberante– los estadounidenses del siglo XXII deberán ser capaces de apreciar de qué manera nuestra previsión para trabajar más allá de los límites de propiedad, jurisdiccionales e incluso nacionales se convirtió en un factor clave de los esfuerzos realizados en la nación por distintas generaciones con el fin de preservar las fuentes esenciales de agua dulce, los productos del bosque producidos en forma sustentable y amplias oportunidades recreativas.
Comentarios de los ponentes
Los ponentes de la conferencia hicieron hincapié en la importancia de la cooperación constante entre las diferentes organizaciones y los diferentes sectores para poder lograr objetivos duraderos. Susan Collins, senadora republicana por Maine, relató con orgullo de qué manera se conservaron más de 800.000 hectáreas de bosques de Maine en los últimos doce años. La senadora comentó: Bosque Nacional White Mountain cerca del pueblo de Berlin, Nueva Hampshire.
“Lo logramos mediante la constitución de una sociedad entre todos los niveles del gobierno, la industria de productos forestales, grupos ambientales, forestales y recreativos, y propietarios. A través de esta sociedad, hemos podido mantener y aún aumentar los niveles de productividad de madera y cosechas, apoyando así una industria de productos forestales diversa y sólida que emplea a decenas de miles de trabajadores en la producción de papel, otros productos derivados de la madera y energía renovable. Al mismo tiempo, hemos logrado proteger la biodiversidad, los bosques antiguos y maduros y el acceso público a la recreación, además de aumentar las oportunidades para el turismo” (Levitt y Chester 2011, 72).
Peter Welch, representante demócrata por Vermont, y Rush Holt, representante demócrata por Nueva Jersey, destacaron la importancia de ser perseverantes en estos esfuerzos. Welch hizo hincapié en el valor de mantener los presupuestos para la conservación de tierras durante la presente ronda de negociaciones sobre el presupuesto. Recordó a la audiencia que, en 1864, el entonces presidente Abraham Lincoln dejó por un instante de centrar su atención en una crisis de dimensiones monumentales —la guerra civil— con el fin de firmar un proyecto de ley para transferir el área de Yosemite al estado de California para uso público y recreativo. Si Lincoln fue capaz de crear el parque Yosemite en medio de la guerra civil, afirmó Welch, nosotros podemos hacer lo mismo en estos tiempos de presupuestos ajustados y volatilidad económica.
Holt centró sus comentarios en el hecho de poder cumplir la antigua promesa de financiar integralmente las porciones federales y estatales del Fondo para la Conservación de Tierras y Agua (Land and Water Conservation Fund o LWCF), al igual que otras iniciativas legislativas, tales como la Ley para la Conservación de Corredores de Vida Silvestre. Holt fue categórico a la hora de animar a la comunidad conservacionista a responder a la necesidad de tomar medidas urgentes por nuestro propio bien y por el bien de las generaciones futuras. Recordó además a la audiencia la advertencia del expresidente Lyndon Johnson, firmante de las leyes originales relacionadas con el LWCF y de la Ley de V ida Silvestre en el año 1964: “Si queremos que las generaciones futuras nos recuerden con gratitud en vez de con pena, debemos lograr mucho más que los milagros de la tecnología. También es nuestro dejarles vislumbrar el mundo tal como fue creado, y no sólo su imagen después de que nosotros pasáramos por él” (Henry y Armstrong 2004, 123).
Peter Welch, representante demócrata por Vermont, y Rush Holt, representante demócrata por Nueva Jersey, destacaron la importancia de ser perseverantes en estos esfuerzos. Welch hizo hincapié en el valor de mantener los presupuestos para la conservación de tierras durante la presente ronda de negociaciones sobre el presupuesto. Recordó a la audiencia que, en 1864, el entonces presidente Abraham Lincoln dejó por un instante de centrar su atención en una crisis de dimensiones monumentales —la guerra civil— con el fin de firmar un proyecto de ley para transferir el área de Yosemite al estado de California para uso público y recreativo. Si Lincoln fue capaz de crear el parque Yosemite en medio de la guerra civil, afirmó Welch, nosotros podemos hacer lo mismo en estos tiempos de presupuestos ajustados y volatilidad económica.
Holt centró sus comentarios en el hecho de poder cumplir la antigua promesa de financiar integralmente las porciones federales y estatales del Fondo para la Conservación de Tierras y Agua (Land and Water Conservation Fund o LWCF), al igual que otras iniciativas legislativas, tales como la Ley para la Conservación de Corredores de Vida Silvestre. Holt fue categórico a la hora de animar a la comunidad conservacionista a responder a la necesidad de tomar medidas urgentes por nuestro propio bien y por el bien de las generaciones futuras. Recordó además a la audiencia la advertencia del expresidente Lyndon Johnson, firmante de las leyes originales relacionadas con el LWCF y de la Ley de V ida Silvestre en el año 1964: “Si queremos que las generaciones futuras nos recuerden con gratitud en vez de con pena, debemos lograr mucho más que los milagros de la tecnología. También es nuestro dejarles vislumbrar el mundo tal como fue creado, y no sólo su imagen después de que nosotros pasáramos por él” (Henry y Armstrong 2004, 123).
De estos debates se desprende claramente que los líderes de todos los sectores se encuentran listos para ayudar a implementar las aspiraciones conservacionistas de cooperación mencionadas por Collins, Welch y Holt. Bob Bendick, director de relaciones gubernamentales de los Estados Unidos en The Nature Conservancy, indicó que “el objetivo general de AGO [America’s Great Outdoors] debería ser el de crear y mantener una red nacional de grandes áreas de tierras, agua y costas restauradas y conservadas, alrededor de las cuales los estadounidenses puedan llevar a cabo vidas productivas y saludables” (Levitt y Chester 2011, 74). En la misma línea, Bendick compartió con el grupo su sueño personal de que, algún día, sus pequeñas nietas pudieran, cuando fueran adultas, mirar desde el arco de la entrada el Parque Nacional Y ellowstone y ver que “en todos los Estados Unidos, 400 millones de personas han logrado organizar sus vidas y actividades en toda la extensión de este país extraordinario de tal manera que han podido reconciliar sus vidas con el poder, la gracia, la belleza y la productividad de la tierra y el agua que, al fin y al cabo, nos sustentan a todos” (Levitt y Chester 2011, 75).
Will Shafroth, secretario adjunto de Piscicultura, Vida Silvestre y Parques del Departamento del Interior de los Estados Unidos, y Harris Sherman, subsecretario de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente del Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos, compartieron con franqueza sus evaluaciones acerca de la situación actual. Shafroth describió el arduo trabajo y la gran cantidad de comentarios que ayudaron a elaborar el informe de America’s Great Outdoors. Shafroth, por su parte, resaltó que, aunque dicho trabajo sirve como buen fundamento para los esfuerzos que se realicen en el futuro, sostener el impulso conservacionista en estos tiempos de rígidas limitaciones presupuestarias exige una gran cuota de creatividad y pensamiento proactivo.
Sherman agregó que la idea integral de conservación de paisajes implica que debemos pasar de llevar a cabo únicamente actos de conservación al azar a fomentar iniciativas a gran escala más integrales y colaborativas, en las que se pueda involucrar a muchas agencias y tipos de propietarios. Resaltó además la importancia especial que tendrán los resultados del debate sobre el proyecto de Ley de Granjas de 2012, ya que las disposiciones conservacionistas que incluye dicho proyecto tendrán una importancia crucial para el éxito de las medidas tendientes a la conservación de paisajes.
El entusiasmo por la conservación de grandes paisajes demostrado por los ponentes provenientes del público en general y de las organizaciones sin fines de lucro se vio apoyado aún más por Jim Stone, propietario particular y administrador de un rancho en el Valle Blackfoot de Montana. Stone fue uno de los fundadores del Desafío Blackfoot, una organización popular que, mediante un enfoque centrado en la conservación de paisajes, ha logrado impresionantes resultados medibles en los últimos 30 años.
Jamie Williams, colega de Stone y miembro de The Nature Conservancy, explicó que el Desafío Blackfoot ha logrado un éxito extraordinario en todos estos años debido a que se tomaron el tiempo necesario para involucrar a gran cantidad de propietarios y socios mediante un enfoque basado en el consenso sobre la conservación. Los pequeños éxitos iniciales fueron de suma importancia a la hora de generar confianza para lograr los exitosos resultados posteriores (Williams 2011). En lo que respecta a la recuperación de arroyos solamente, el Desafío Blackfoot logró involucrar a más de 200 propietarios en unos 680 proyectos sobre 42 arroyos y 960 kilómetros de arroyos, lo que ha dado como resultado directo un aumento del 800 por ciento en las poblaciones de peces en el valle de más de 607.000 hectáreas. Stone es categórico al afirmar que, con la gente correcta en los lugares correctos, lo que se logró en la región de Blackfoot podría también lograrse en toda la nación.
El programa se completó con un panel de investigadores y funcionarios académicos que representaban a distintas universidades, facultades e instituciones de investigación dedicados a la tarea de catalizar las iniciativas de conservación de grandes paisajes. Matthew McKinney, de la Universidad de Montana, moderó un debate junto con David Foster, de Harvard Forest y la Universidad de Harvard, Perry Brown, de la Universidad de Montana, y Karl Flessa, de la Universidad de Arizona. Los panelistas analizaron de qué manera las instituciones, tanto en sus actividades internas como de extensión, pueden utilizar sus capacidades analíticas y su poder de convocatoria con el fin de fomentar las iniciativas para obtener un amplio impacto.
Perry Brown señaló que las universidades que van a representar un papel en las iniciativas de conservación en el mundo real no serán aquellas que permanezcan aisladas sino, por el contrario, las que mantengan relaciones con socios no académicos, tales como tribus indígenas, agencias gubernamentales federales y estatales y organizaciones sin fines de lucro, ya sean de gran envergadura a nivel nacional como de menor escala a nivel municipal. David Foster reforzó esta idea describiendo las actividades de extensión llevadas a cabo por Harvard Forest con el fin de elaborar y divulgar su reciente informe sobre Tierras V írgenes y Bosques en Nueva I nglaterra (Foster y otros 2009).
Casos de conservación de grandes paisajes
En todo el país, existen casos ejemplares de conservación de grandes paisajes que han experimentado progresos in situ, desde M aine hasta M ontana y desde el sur de Arizona hasta el norte de Florida. Uno de los casos más importantes que ha estado en funcionamiento por más tiempo se encuentra en la cuenca ACE, en las famosas tierras bajas de Carolina del Sur. La cuenca ACE, formada por más de 140.000 hectáreas que desembocan en los ríos Ashepoo, Combahee y Edisto Sur, entre Charleston y Beaufort, es uno de los mayores estuarios sin desarrollar de todo el litoral atlántico de los Estados Unidos (ver figura 1).
A fines de la década de 1980, un grupo de organizaciones públicas, privadas y sin fines de lucro unieron sus esfuerzos con el fin de crear una sociedad que protegiera las excepcionales fuentes de agua, la vida silvestre y los paisajes de la región. Entre los miembros de la Sociedad de la Cuenca ACE se encuentran agencias federales, como el Servicio de Piscicultura y V ida Silvestre y la Administración Nacional de Océanos y Atmósfera; agencias estatales, como el Departamento de Recursos Naturales de Carolina del Sur; organizaciones nacionales sin fines de lucro, como The Nature Conservancy y Ducks Unlimited
Los miembros de esta sociedad han logrado conservar más de 54.225 hectáreas, que constituyen una superficie contigua en el centro mismo de la cuenca ACE que une derechos de servidumbre sobre terrenos privados, un Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre, las Áreas de Administración de Vida Silvestre de Carolina del Sur y un centro interpretativo natural e histórico del condado de Charleston, entre otras propiedades.
En su calidad de iniciativa de conservación de paisajes de gran envergadura, la cuenca ACE se destaca realmente entre otros proyectos. Mark Robertson, director ejecutivo de The Nature Conservancy en Carolina del Sur, indicó que este esfuerzo “estableció un estándar en cuanto a la forma de implementar proyectos de conservación a gran escala mediante la colaboración de los propietarios particulares, los grupos conservacionistas y las agencias gubernamentales”. Al preguntársele acerca de la importancia de los progresos obtenidos en la cuenca ACE hasta la fecha, Dana Beach, directora de la Liga de Conservación Costera, responde categóricamente: “La importancia central tiene que ver con el hecho de que, por primera vez, estas tareas de conservación les han brindado a muchas personas la esperanza de que un lugar de tanta importancia no caerá inevitablemente en el desarrollo” (Holleman 2008).
Próximos pasos
El coloquio sobre liderazgo en conservación concluyó con un acuerdo general en cuanto a que todavía queda mucho por hacer y que esta es una oportunidad histórica para extender el progreso logrado inicialmente en el campo de la conservación de grandes paisajes. El debate acerca de los próximos pasos que deben darse se organizó en torno a cuatro tipos de iniciativas.
Coloquios sobre políticas de conservación
Resulta necesario continuar estos coloquios sobre políticas de conservación, tanto entre los conservacionistas de los sectores público, privado, sin fines de lucro y académico como entre la comunidad conservacionista y los responsables a nivel local, estatal y federal, que deberán centrarse en las oportunidades que actualmente se presentan para llevar a cabo iniciativas de conservación de grandes paisajes en toda la nación. En estos encuentros deberían darse a conocer los casos de éxito que han involucrado propiedades orientadas tanto a la cultura como a la naturaleza (ya que ambos tipos de conservación son muy valorados por el público); tener en cuenta las medidas de conservación que se están tomando a nivel regional; y pensar imaginativamente en otras nuevas.
En cuanto a la esfera política, estos coloquios deberían estar conectados con los comités conservacionistas en los diferentes niveles de gobierno (municipal, del condado, estatal, federal e internacional). Dentro de los contextos de organizaciones sin fines de lucro y académico, el diálogo debería producirse entre las diferentes disciplinas y cruzar los límites institucionales. Dichos debates intersectoriales e interdisciplinarios probablemente den como resultado soluciones creativas e ideas novedosas. Aunque en estos debates se aproveche la naturaleza socialmente neutra de las universidades en su calidad de coordinadoras, no por ello deben dejar de dar respuesta a los problemas prácticos y reales que sean causas significativas de preocupación para los profesionales del campo y los propietarios.
Investigación
Otra necesidad inmediata es la de actualizar los mapas e inventarios existentes (como por ejemplo, la base de datos de la Sociedad de Paisajes del Noreste de la Asociación para el Plan Regional) con el fin de ofrecer una visión más completa de las iniciativas que se encuentran en marcha, ya sean públicas, privadas o sin fines de lucro. Por otro lado, un panorama general más amplio acerca de los esfuerzos realizados a nivel nacional resultaría muy útil para los grupos y redes que trabajan con el fin de fomentar la práctica de la conservación de grandes paisajes. Entre estos grupos se cuentan la Red de Profesionales para la Conservación de Grandes Paisajes, un programa del I nstituto Lincoln, y las Cooperativas para la Conservación de Paisajes (Landscape Conservation Cooperatives o LCC) del Servicio de Piscicultura y Vida Silvestre de los Estados Unidos.
Todos estos esfuerzos de investigación podrían resultar mucho más pertinentes y rentables si implicaran la cooperación entre una amplia gama de organizaciones públicas y privadas. Y podrían, además, fomentar el aumento de las iniciativas de educación medioambiental, que ya se cuentan con cuentagotas.
También se precisa una mayor investigación para medir el impacto, el rendimiento a lo largo del tiempo y los resultados de las iniciativas de conservación de grandes paisajes, así como también para identificar los factores claves de éxito de aquellas iniciativas que sean capaces de demostrar resultados significativos medibles. Una investigación particularmente importante sería aquella capaz de identificar dónde, cuándo y cómo ciertos esfuerzos logran prestar servicios mejorados y medibles para el ecosistema, tales como una mejor calidad del agua, un mayor crecimiento en las poblaciones de vida silvestre y una mayor producción sustentable de productos derivados de los bosques.
Redes
Recientemente se han creado, o están emergiendo, una importante cantidad de redes dedicadas a los grandes paisajes, tales como la Red de Profesionales para la Conservación de Grandes Paisajes y las LCC mencionadas anteriormente. A medida que estas redes evolucionen, es muy probable que vayan apoyándose unas en otras a escalas geográficas cada vez mayores, aunque también deberán centrar sus esfuerzos en compartir sus conocimientos y desarrollar capacidades a nivel local con el fin de obtener resultados duraderos. Sin perjuicio de la necesidad de tener los pies en la tierra, estas redes tienen la oportunidad de conseguir socios internacionales que tengan algo que enseñar. Dentro de sus propios territorios, las redes de conservación de grandes paisajes deben conectarse con distintos electorados, como filántropos interesados en la conservación de grandes paisajes, cuerpos docentes y estudiantes universitarios, agencias públicas y, lo que es más importante, propietarios particulares y administradores de terrenos.
Demostración e implementación
Dadas las fuertes restricciones que se esperan en los nuevos programas de conservación a nivel federal, estatal y local para los próximos años, los participantes centraron gran parte de su atención en la utilización creativa de los presupuestos existentes para la conservación de paisajes. Uno de los participantes destacó el papel significativo que ya está representando el Departamento de Defensa al conservar y limitar el desarrollo en los terrenos adyacentes a las reservas militares activas. Dichos programas se utilizan en la actualidad para proteger de forma efectiva los distintos hábitats y tierras de trabajo del desarrollo, y para limitar la fragmentación de los paisajes. Asimismo, estos programas podrán utilizarse en el futuro para tratar los problemas relacionados con la protección de las fuentes de agua. Otro de los participantes mencionó la importancia que podrían tener los presupuestos estatales y federales para el transporte, los cuales podrían utilizarse con el fin de mitigar el impacto negativo que generan las nuevas carreteras y autopistas.
Particular entusiasmo mostraron varios participantes de sociedades formadas por organizaciones públicas, privadas y sin fines de lucro que poseen una reconocida trayectoria en la protección y mejoramiento de recursos naturales y culturales de gran valor local para constituir la médula de una infraestructura ecológica regional. A modo de ejemplo, podemos mencionar Santa Fe, Nuevo México; la cuenca Chattahoochee/Apalachicola en Georgia, Mississippi y Florida; la Corona del Continente, en Montana, Alberta y la Columbia Británica; y las tierras altas de Nueva Jersey.
Otras oportunidades de financiamiento para las iniciativas de conservación de grandes paisajes incluyen incentivos estatales para la protección de terrenos privados que pueden utilizarse como fondos de contrapartida en relación con ciertos programas federales (como por ejemplo, los fondos de contrapartida necesarios para el financiamiento establecido por la Ley de Conservación de Pantanos de Norteamérica); programas comunitarios de protección de bosques que, en la actualidad, están adquiriendo impulso en toda la nación; oportunidades especiales de Inversiones Relacionadas con el Programa (Program-Related Investmentso PRI) para fundaciones; y mercados emergentes dedicados a los servicios de protección de ecosistemas que reciben apoyo de las políticas federales y de las sociedades formadas por organizaciones públicas y privadas, entre los que se incluyen los mercados bancarios estatales de mitigación para los créditos destinados al carbón, tales como los de California.
Conclusión
A pesar de las evidentes restricciones presupuestarias a nivel federal, se encuentran disponibles incontables oportunidades para llevar a cabo proyectos de conservación a escala expansiva, con un enfoque de extensión, capaces de lograr resultados de conservación medibles y duraderos. Los propios participantes de la conferencia ofrecieron claras muestras de que el concepto de conservación de grandes paisajes se ha extendido y ahora pueden observarse iniciativas en todo el continente. Estos participantes y sus colegas, tanto aquí como en el exterior, se encuentran hoy a la vanguardia — y lo seguirán estando— en las iniciativas para la protección de la naturaleza dentro del contexto de los valores humanos, en proporción a los desafíos conservacionistas a los que se enfrentan.
Coloquio sobre Liderazgo en Conservación
El primero de marzo de 2011, el Lincoln Institute of Land Policy celebró su décimo Coloquio sobre Liderazgo en Conservación anual, centrado en “El futuro de la conservación de grandes paisajes en los Estados Unidos”. La sesión fue organizada por James N. Levitt, fellow del Instituto Lincoln, con la colaboración de Armando Carbonell, senior fellow y director del Departamento de Planificación y Forma Urbana. La jornada tuvo lugar en el Salón de miembros del Congreso de la Biblioteca del Congreso, justo enfrente del Capitolio de los EE.UU. en Washington, DC, coincidiendo con el centésimo aniversario de la fecha en que el expresidente William Howard Taft suscribió la ley que permitió la creación de bosques nacionales en la región este del país, lo que marcó un hito en la legislación. La Ley Weeks de 1911, así llamada en honor al congresista (y más tarde senador) de Massachusetts John Wingate Weeks modificó la esencia del conservacionismo en cooperación, al permitir la participación de ciudadanos activos en los sectores público, privado, sin fines de lucro, académico y de investigación de los Estados Unidos.
Sobre el Autor
James N. Levitt es fellow del Departamento de Planificación y Forma Urbana del Lincoln Institute of Land Policy y director del Programa de Innovaciones sobre la Conservación de Harvard Forest, Universidad de Harvard.
Referencias
Consejo sobre Calidad Ambiental. 2011. “America’s great outdoors: A promise to future generations”. Washington, DC: Imprenta gubernamental. http://americasgreatoutdoors. gov/report
Foster, D., D. Kittredge, B. Donahue, K. Fallon Lambert, M. Hunter, L. Irland, B. Hall, D. Orwig, A. Ellison, E. Colburn, A. D’Amato y C. Cogbill. 2009. “Wildlands and woodlands: A vision for New England”. En Harvard Forest Paper 32. Petersham, MA: Harvard Forest.
Henry, Mark y Leslie Armstrong. 2004. “Mapping the future of America’s national parks: Stewardship through geographic information Systems”. Redlands, CA: ESRI.
Holleman, Joey. 2008. “Ace Basin: Protected forever”. En The State, Local/Metro Section, 10 de noviembre. http://www.thestate.com/2008/11/10/584599/ace-basin-protected-forever.html#ixzz1W3yQd7KP.
Levitt, James N. y Charles N. Chester. 2011. “The future of large landscape conservation in America”. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. http://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/1916_The-Future-of-Large-Landscape-Conservation-in-America.
Williams, Jamie. 2011. “Scaling up conservation for large landscapes”. En Land Lines 23(3): 8–13. https://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/dl/1923_1246_LLA_071103.pdf.
Otros Recursos
Levitt, James N., ed. 2005. “From Walden to Wall Street: Frontiers of conservation finance”. Washington, DC: Island Press y Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
———. 2010. “Conservation Capital in the Americas: Exemplary Conservation Finance Initiatives”. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, en colaboración con Island Press, el Instituto Ash para el Gobierno y la Innovación Democrática de la Facultad Kennedy de Harvard y el Centro de Estudios Latinoamericanos David Rockefeller de la Universidad de Harvard.
McKinney Matthew J. y Shawn Johnson. 2009. “Working across boundaries: People, nature, and regions”. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
McKinney, Matthew J., Lynn Scarlett y Daniel Kemmis. 2010. “Large landscape conservation: A strategic framework for policy and action”. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
Yellowstone National Park seems so wild today because in 1872 it became the first national park on Earth and because the wildfires in 1988 and the successful reintroduction of wolves in the 1990s have restored the dynamic character of the original landscape. In his recent PBS television series, filmmaker Ken Burns called our national parks “America’s best idea,” but a growing number of people within the conservation movement now believe that, at best, fully protected areas like Yellowstone are only part of the conservation solution. They argue that we should be saving nature for people, not from the impacts of people, and that our efforts should encompass more different kinds of areas with less emphasis on “preserved” lands.
This is a variation on the 100-year-old debate between conservationist John Muir and forest manager Gifford Pinchot: Should we protect nature for its intrinsic value or should our approach be much more utilitarian? The latter view sought to maximize the long-term production of water, harvestable wildlife, and timber, and now would include carbon storage, biofuels, nutrient removal, protection from natural hazards–in sum, all the things that the natural world provides.
Contemporary discussions raise another issue about the pervasiveness of human impacts on natural areas. Yellowstone and every other place on the planet are profoundly influenced by human decisions. Aldo Leopold (1966, 254) perceived this dilemma more than 60 years ago when he wrote, “man’s invention of tools has enabled him to make changes of unprecedented violence, rapidity and scope.” These tools are far more powerful today. In her recent book, Rambunctious Garden, science writer Emma Marris (2011) advances the argument that we will have to learn to accept a nature altered by human activities. It is not sufficient to think about preserving natural areas to allow the unimpeded function of their natural systems. Every place requires some form of management, even if only to protect what remains of its “natural” condition.
The extent to which humans have become responsible for nature was brought home to me in a recent conversation with Phil Kramer, The Nature Conservancy’s Caribbean director. He described the die-back of coral reefs in that region and his team’s efforts to restore them by selecting coral genotypes that seem most resilient to warmer water, growing those corals in nurseries, and then using them to rebuild reefs at many locations.
For thousands of years, consciously and unconsciously, humans have shaped their environments to fit their needs, but this kind of intentional intervention to respond to the growing threats to nature represents a new direction that is different from Muir’s preservation and Pinchot’s scientific management. We are now trying to create our conservation future at increasingly large scales. This creative conservation process builds on the analytical approaches to conservation of the past, but does not depend only on baseline analysis of historic ecosystems to establish goals for the future. Rather, it requires that our goals be derived from a synthesis of human and natural needs and benefits guided by what Aldo Leopold (1966, 239) called “a land ethic”–an informed personal responsibility for the health and future of our land and water.
Challenges to Protecting Nature
This approach to conservation faces a lively debate within the conservation community. Many people hold on to the idea of restoring disturbed areas to wilderness and to the ultimate power of nature, but others recognize that these approaches can be only a part of our future. From my perspective, the energy of the conservation community is better directed not to internal debate but to meeting the real challenges we face in sustaining the core framework and functions of natural systems for their benefit to people and to nature itself. What are these challenges?
Strategies for Creative Conservation
At this pivotal point in America’s conservation history, what does the conservation movement have to do to resolve the conflicts between today’s political parties, the global human pressures on our natural systems, and the need to create an environmental future in this country and around the world that is ethical, sustainable, and achievable? The answers, I believe, come not from Washington, but rather from a nationwide movement of landowners, government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and community groups working together to protect the places they value, such as the Blackfoot Valley in Montana, the Flint Hills of Kansas, and the Connecticut and Hudson River Valleys in the East. Popular projects such as these suggest a number of strategies that can contribute to lasting and large-scale conservation success.
Work at the landscape scale.
In a world with many stresses and threats to nature, we know that disconnected pieces of natural systems are unlikely to survive. Most federal agencies are beginning to think in these terms, but many institutional barriers must be overcome to make the conservation of what The Nature Conservancy calls “whole systems” the usual way of doing business.
Use multiple conservation tools at the same time.
It is essential to integrate preservation, traditional private and public land management, and restoration in places defined by both natural and human attributes. The combination of working at a large scale and using multiple approaches suggests that government must achieve an unprecedented level of coordination in how it uses its influence and resources.
Recognize, respect, and quantify the short- and long-term human benefits of conservation.
Conservation organizations must become expert in understanding and explaining the value of nature in shaping the future world. As multiple interests try to piece together the future, they must be able to represent accurately how important the natural components of that future will be.
Do not discard the idea of baseline conditions.
It is not always possible to sustain nature as it has existed in the past, but we can give the highest priority to protecting those places where ecological processes can continue, where change can be managed, and where we can, as The Nature Conservancy’s scientist, Mark Anderson, says, “save the stage if not all the players.”
Learn to balance adaptive management with long-term goals.
This requires bringing together a willingness to admit and adjust to mistakes with the consistency of purpose and action needed to influence the future of large systems. It takes time to reach the kind of long-term consensus building about the desired future condition that communities are trying to achieve. Successful, creative conservation projects extend over decades, not years.
Maintain fair and consistent environmental laws.
Environmental and land use regulatory processes and economic incentives and disincentives can and should be restructured in ways that will establish a more consistent and flexible framework for shaping the future and bring a positive environmental influence to the operation of markets. But regulatory standards must be maintained to ensure a level playing field and to protect the environment and human health while enabling long-term economic growth. The broad use of the mitigation hierarchy (avoid, minimize, compensate) can be helpful here. This approach to the siting of infrastructure and development can enable investment and economic growth while providing net benefits for nature.
Do more to ensure the involvement of citizens and diverse stakeholders in planning for the future.
If our society is not simply protecting nature, but creating a future world, then all of us have an even greater right–and I would say a responsibility–to be involved in setting those goals. We no longer live in a mainframe society. Most decisions are driven by networked individual actions, and citizens need a renewed sense of empowerment in determining the character of the places where they, live, work, and recreate. Conservation, too, will become a more decentralized, from-the-bottom-up process. The engagement of young people is particularly important, and environmental issues must be made relevant to the diverse residents of the nation’s metropolitan areas where the great majority of Americans live.
Identify, train, and mentor a new generation of local conservation leaders.
A new generation of conservationists skilled at working with diverse interests will be able to create a future that brings together environmental and long-term economic needs.
Shared Problem Solving
Of course, doing these things could put creative conservation in the crossfire between those for whom nature is irrelevant and those who are fearful that changing anything about environmental regulation or protection of public lands will open the door to cataclysmic change. But these steps can advance practical solutions to the nation’s growing political impasse on conservation and the environment. At the heart of this impasse is the shared belief that we have lost control over the future of our families and communities, and that we have become victims of the actions of distant forces.
Done right, creative conservation can give all of us significant roles in shaping the future of the places most important to us–our home ranges. It also offers two benefits that can have powerful political traction–the opportunity for better places to live, work, and visit that provide tangible benefits to our lives, and the sense of respect and self-worth implicit in helping to determine the future of the places we love.
Such an approach might move the environmental politics of both conservatives and liberals toward shared problem solving. For conservatives–is it planning for the future they oppose, or just planning by those with whom they disagree? Are they willing to include the hopes of citizens for their own communities as a legitimate part of the less government and more market-driven future they would like to see? For liberals–are they willing to trust people who work on the land to make more decisions about the fate of our land and water, or are they, too, really more interested in centralized control to achieve their own vision of what should be? Can the opportunity to work together to create good futures for the real places that surround our lives be the literal and symbolic common ground that can heal some of our society’s divisions?
The stone arch at the North Entrance to Yellowstone was erected to commemorate the creation of the park and is inscribed “For the Benefit and Enjoyment of the People.” Theodore Roosevelt put the cornerstone of the arch in place when he visited Yellowstone in 1904, at a time when Americans increasingly saw government as a protector of the common good. Yellowstone was an example of that spirit.
But now, in the twenty-first century, it seems to me that the gateway arch also has an important message about looking outward from the park, down Paradise Valley where the Yellowstone River heads toward the Missouri, the Mississippi, and the Gulf of Mexico. The conservation challenge before us, against all odds and whether we like it or not, is to create a future for the benefit of the people, based on a respect for and understanding of the multiple values of nature in many more places across America.
If approached place-by-place in this way, Americans with diverse points of view can rally to the cause of conservation as not just something to think about on vacation, not just a luxury, but as a durable foundation for healthy, safe, more prosperous and more spiritually rewarding lives for all of our children and grandchildren.
About the Author
Bob Bendick is director of U.S. Government Relations at The Nature Conservancy in Washington, DC.
References
Leopold, Aldo. 1966 [1949]. A Sand County almanac: With essays on conservation from Round River. New York: Oxford University Press.
Marris, Emma. 2011. Rambunctious garden: Saving nature in a post-wild world. New York: Bloomsbury Press.
In the wake of Hurricane Sandy, with more frequent extreme weather events and rising sea levels, the vulnerability of coastal cities and towns has become a matter of urgency. But out of disasters can come opportunities for innovation. Post-Sandy, a range of new initiatives, tools, policies, governance frameworks, and incentives are being tested, including competitions such as Rebuild by Design (RBD). Spearheaded by the Hurricane Sandy Rebuilding Task Force and the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the contest used design as a key tool for creating integrated strategies to build resilience, sustainability, and livability.
After HUD announced the winners in June, Land Lines discussed RBD with Helen Lochhead, an architect, urban and landscape designer, and 2014 Lincoln/Loeb Fellow at the Graduate School of Design at Harvard University and the Lincoln Institute. Previously, she was the Executive Director of Place Development at Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority. She is also an adjunct professor at the University of Sydney.
Land Lines: How did Hurricane Sandy differ from other storms in the United States?
Helen Lochhead: Sandy caused unprecedented damage and underscored the vulnerability of coastal cities and towns to more frequent extreme weather events. Given the financial costs, topping $65 billion, and the excessive human toll, with 117 people dead and more than 200,000 displaced from their homes, it was clear from the outset of the recovery process that rebuilding what existed before was not a viable option.
All levels of government—federal, state, and city—clearly articulated the imperative to build greater resilience in the Sandy-affected areas of New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut. To ensure the tri-state region fares better next time around, it was acknowledged that we had to build differently. Because every $1 spent on mitigation and preparation can save $4 down the road on post-disaster rebuilding, government agencies are testing a range of new initiatives, including competitions that promote resilience through innovative planning and design, such as Rebuild by Design.
Land Lines: How did Rebuild by Design differ from other recovery efforts and design competitions?
Helen Lochhead: The RBD competition acknowledged design as a key tool for dealing with extreme weather events, with potential to reframe questions and develop new paradigms that challenge the status quo. Designers are collaborators, visualizers, and synthesizers. RBD provided them the opportunity to unpack issues and put together scenarios in new and different ways.
RBD’s approach was also regional. Hurricane Sandy defied political boundaries, so the competition aimed to address structural and environmental vulnerabilities that the storm exposed across all affected areas. It also promised to strengthen our understanding of regional interdependencies, fostering coordination and resilience both at the local level and across the United States.
The procurement strategy was different as well. The standard model for federal design competitions is to define an existing problem, develop a brief, and solicit solutions from the best experts in the field. But a problem of such unprecedented scale and complexity as Sandy cannot easily be defined until it’s understood in all its dimensions. This takes time. Such unchartered territory suggested the need for an open-ended question and an interdisciplinary, cross-jurisdictional approach.
First, a diverse pool of talent was engaged by a unique consortium of project partners—President Obama’s Hurricane Sandy Rebuilding Task Force and HUD in collaboration with New York University’s Institute for Public Knowledge (IPK), the Municipal Art Society (MAS), Regional Plan Association (RPA), and the Van Alen Institute (VAI), with financial support from the Rockefeller Foundation and other major foundations. Rather than limiting the field, the project partners sought integrated teams of interdisciplinary, collaborative thinkers, to facilitate a broad range of ideas and approaches as well as more holistic strategies.
Second, the competition process itself was different. Eight months total, it was short, sharp, and focused. The process involved research and design to interrogate the issues and maximize the breadth and range of ideas through open innovation paradigms. The process was research-led, open-source, and collaborative, to better refine the nature and scope of the complex regional challenges and develop comprehensive design solutions.
Third, RBD set aside HUD Community Development Block Grants (CDBG-DR) funding—$920 million specifically—to help implement winning projects and proposals. Typically, grantees are required to develop action plans only after receiving these funds. But RBD informally changed this procedure by fostering innovative proposals before awarding money. Thus, federal dollars became a catalyst for innovation as well as a mechanism to facilitate implementation. Teams were encouraged to secure their own funding for additional design development as well, fueling the extension of their outreach and their project’s scope.
Finally, RBD interacted with communities, not-for-profits, government agencies, and local, state, and federal leaders at every stage to build new coalitions of support and capacity in tandem with each design proposal.
Land Lines: How effective was Rebuild by Design as a vehicle for driving innovation and delivering resilience across the region? And what are the key possibilities and challenges of such a design-led process?
Helen Lochhead: We will not know for some time if RBD will ultimately deliver innovations that better prepare and adapt the region to a changing climate or whether the projects can be successfully implemented and leveraged to build resilience in other vulnerable communities. However, it is possible to identify where the competition has demonstrated innovation and potential impact over and above more standard processes.
The sheer number of participants, range of disciplines, and integrated team structures facilitated a multiplicity of ideas and approaches but also more holistic strategies. From a field of 148 submissions, RBD selected 10 multidisciplinary design teams to research and develop a range of proposals. These finalists included more than 200 experts primarily from planning, design, engineering, and ecology.
The multifaceted research phase, which began in August 2013, also differentiated the competition process from the start. Teams immersed themselves in design-based research, targeted discussions, and field trips to Sandy-affected areas to help understand the enormity of the challenge. The Institute for Public Knowledge led this stage as a way to address a broad range of issues and involve local community input and fieldwork. The IPK research identified vulnerabilities and risk, for which the design teams could then propose better, more resilient alternatives. This framework enabled the project teams not only to identify, understand, and respond to core problems, but to define opportunities and create scenarios. The process also facilitated the sharing of research and ideas across teams.
The designers undertook extensive precedent studies, examined global best practice, and met with community members to elicit input on what might be most effective in local contexts. They identified new and emerging approaches to coastal protection, finance, policy, and land-use planning, as well as communication models that demonstrated promise in other contexts and could be adapted in the Sandy-affected region. Visual tools were key to the exploration. Teams tested scenarios using GIS mapping tools to collate, synthesize, and communicate complex data. Three-dimensional visualizations helped to convey various options and engage stakeholders.
The power of design-led propositions cannot be underestimated as a means to translate intangible problems into tangible solutions that stakeholders can relate to and discuss in meaningful ways.
Land Lines: You mentioned that RBD built new coalitions of support. How was the outreach different?
Helen Lochhead: Ten ideas were selected for design development in October, commencing the final stage of the competition. Teams worked closely with MAS, RPA, and VAI to transform their design ideas into viable projects that would inspire cooperation from politicians, communities, and agencies across the region and thus facilitate implementation and funding. Because of the regional approach of these far-reaching projects, the role of the partner organizations was pivotal here in bringing together local networks of often vastly different interests.
Coalition building was essential to ensuring that the approach was inclusive as well as comprehensive. Even more important was the grassroots support for implementation, to create the necessary momentum to deliver projects in the long run, as inevitably some will roll out over time as funds become available.
Land Lines: What were some key themes in the proposals?
Helen Lochhead: The overarching logic in the proposals is that the greatest benefit and value is created when investment addresses not just flood or storm risk, but also the combined effects of extreme weather events, environmental degradation, social vulnerability, and vital network susceptibility. By restoring ecosystems and creating recreational and economic opportunities, the projects will enhance sustainability and resilience.
What prevailed were layered approaches that incorporate more ecological green/blue infrastructure as well as gray infrastructure systems, along with proposals for new, more regionally based governance models, online tools, and educational initiatives that build capacity within communities. Many demonstrated place-based solutions that also had wider application. All highlighted interdependencies, fostering coordination and inclusion.
Land Lines: Among the winning projects, announced by HUD Secretary Shaun Donovan on June 2, what are some of the key innovations?
Helen Lochhead: SCAPE/Landscape Architecture’s “Living Breakwaters” could have far-reaching application if the engineered protective oyster reefs are successful. Although the proposal faces some challenges—in-water permitting and potential broader environmental impacts that need to be worked through—it has the potential to be piloted and tested on a much smaller scale, with the buy-in of local communities and champions such as the New York Harbor School, to iron out teething problems early on. If feasible, it has the added benefit of self-sustaining biological systems that keep replenishing themselves. The ingenuity of this scheme is the use of a pilot project to challenge the policy and regulatory framework with a radical rethink of the possibilities. Regulatory hurdles are often a significant barrier to innovation, so a small-scale trial is a low-risk investment. If it fails, there is little downside; if it succeeds, it will have circumvented major policy hurdles, paving the way for other new approaches to more ecologically based storm protection.
MIT CAU + ZUS + URBANISTEN’s “New Meadowlands: Productive City + Regional Park” proposal for the New Jersey Meadowlands affords another equally innovative approach to implementation. It’s a striking example of green infrastructure in the form of thick, multifunctional, landscaped berms along the water’s edge that act as a flood barrier but also allow occupation. The proposal features a productive regional park, with berms and wetlands ringing the waterway, that buffers vital property and infrastructure from floods, rebuilds biodiversity, and hosts recreational and social programs as well as a mix of development to take advantage of the new parklands.
The project also proposes a compelling opportunity for a regionally based governance model to help implement the vision. The New Jersey Meadowlands Commission—with existing land use zoning in 14 municipalities—is a case study in intermunicipal collaboration with latent powers that position it well for a coalition-building effort over this regional landscape. With some re-engineering, it could potentially become an ecological and economic development agency. There are many regulatory hurdles embedded in this proposal that a strong governance body such as this one could potentially streamline. The regional scale of many of the proposals means that they cross jurisdictional boundaries, which complicates implementation. By identifying the untapped potential of this existing governance framework, this team has shifted a major roadblock.
The BIG Team’s “BIG U” is a compartmentalized, multipurpose barrier designed to protect vulnerable precincts in lower Manhattan from floods and storm surge. The team focused on the Lower East Side. The project integrates green space and social programs and, in the longer term, proposes much-needed transit. While it aims to redress the lack of recreational open space in the neighborhood, it inadequately addresses systemic shortcomings, such as the shortage and quality of low-income housing in the area, access to services, and the potential gentrification this project could accelerate.
In Nassau County, Long Island, the Interboro Team’s “Living with the Bay” sought to enhance the region’s quality of everyday life in nonemergency times while addressing flood risk. Taken as a whole, the initiatives present a collection of relatively low-risk propositions that can be readily implemented and that sow seeds for a more strategic and resilient future. Over the long term, improvements would include denser housing close to mass transit and a new community land trust.
PennDesign/OLIN’s “Hunts Point Lifelines” proposal for the Bronx focused on social and economic resilience. While the team considered environmental vulnerabilities, its chief concern was the critical role that the Hunts Point Food Market plays in the local community and the regional food chain. The team worked with the community and industrial property owners to develop site-specific designs for integrated storm protection as well as green infrastructure that offers high-quality social space using components that can be manufactured locally and built cooperatively. The project demonstrated the potential of hybrid port protection and ecology throughout the estuary.
OMA’s comprehensive strategy for Hoboken—“Resist, Delay, Store, Discharge”—represents a catalogue of interventions that incorporates extensive green/blue infrastructure as well as a protective barrier for critical transport infrastructure. While it shares many similarities with the Hoboken Sustainable Communities project, its strength is the comprehensive approach achieved through a series of key initiatives that brought Hoboken and Jersey City to the table with more than 40 stakeholders who will be essential to implementation.
Land Lines: What were the most winning aspects of projects that didn’t win?
Helen Lochhead: Open-source frameworks enabled online engagement that informed both the process and the public, so teams could tap into a much broader range of users than just those who traditionally attend community meetings. For example, Sasaki’s “CrowdGauge for Rebuild” first asked users in Asbury Park, New Jersey, to rank a set of priorities. Then it demonstrated how a series of actions and policies might affect those priorities. Finally, it gave users a limited number of coins, asking them to put that money toward the actions they supported most.
Various teams demonstrated a kit-of-parts approach, drawing on economic development initiatives, how-to toolkits, and urban improvement projects in various combinations to achieve resiliency objectives. HR&A Cooper Robertson’s proposal for Red Hook, Brooklyn, is an example of this method. With all the layers in place, a number of these strategies could be scaled up and result in systemic transformation and benefits. Such granular approaches facilitate phased implementation and with funding are immediately actionable, impactful, and scalable.
Sasaki/Rutgers/Arup’s “Resilience + the Beach” shifted the focus inland from the Jersey Shore to higher, drier headlands, by redefining the coastal zone as the six-mile deep ecosystem between the beach and the New Jersey Pine Barrens. By revealing the scenic attributes and recreational potential of the hinterland’s waterways and forests, the strategy encourages development to migrate from the barrier island edge to stable inland areas to grow a more layered tourism economy. The site for this project is Asbury Park, but the approach has broader regional application by capitalizing on the geographical attributes characteristic of the New Jersey coast—the Pine Barrens, inland bays, and barrier islands—to create new attractions. The strategy includes a range of actions including new green/blue infrastructure, open space and development, and a community toolkit to educate landowners on local risk and options for resilience.
Another prototype for regional coastal cities, WB’s “Resilient Bridgeport” consists of a resilience framework and specific design proposals for the Long Island Sound region. A set of integrated coastal, urban, and riparian design strategies and planning principles provide multiple lines of defense to protect Bridgeport against flooding and storm surge while stimulating environmental restoration, economic development, and neighborhood revitalization focused around social housing.
Land Lines: In sum, what have been the key successes of the competition so far?
Helen Lochhead: The urgency of the problem and the fast pace of the competition provided a level of intensity, drive, and momentum that yielded results in a short time frame. Many of the design solutions were characterized by a quantum and richness of ideas, depth of resolution, and cleverness of approach. The focus was not just on recovery and risk reduction, such as flood and storm mitigation, but on long-term resilience and sustainability. All propositions deliver multiple social, economic, and environmental benefits—improvements related to amenities, ecology, education, capacity building, long-term savings, and community health and well-being—and so tend to be higher-performing, holistic solutions.
The impact to date has already been catalytic. If nothing else, RBD has generated momentum and delivered major benefits to the region by starting the conversation on resilience by design. Granted, the real measure of success is in the implementation, but a robust, innovative process is required to provoke cultural change in practice. RBD has set that example.
Land Lines: What will be the key challenges of implementation?
Helen Lochhead: Finding the sweet spot between the visionary and the pragmatic.
The carrot for the winners was the possibility of building these projects with disaster recovery grants from HUD and other sources of public- and private-sector funding. As such, a key part of the final phase was an implementation strategy that demonstrated feasibility, support of local grantees, phasing, and short-term deliverables that can be delivered with CDBG-DR funding as well as ongoing revenue streams for later stages.
The real opportunity for HUD now is to leverage this process and its exemplary projects to benefit other regions at risk on a national scale.