Una versión más actualizada de este artículo está disponible como parte del capítulo 7 del CD-ROM Perspectivas urbanas: Temas críticos en políticas de suelo de América Latina.

Edesio Fernandes, abogado y urbanista brasileño radicado en Londres, es profesor con dedicación parcial de la Unidad de Planificación para el Desarrollo del University College de Londres. También se desempeña como coordinador de IRGLUS (Grupo internacional de Investigación sobre Legislación y Espacio Urbano) y es asociado de las Naciones Unidas/HABITAT. Entre sus intereses de investigación y docencia figuran la legislación, planificación y política de la gestión urbana y ambiental; la administración municipal y de ciudad y la legislación constitucional y los derechos humanos de países en vías de desarrollo. Durante las dos décadas pasadas ha trabajado activamente en el campo de regularización de suelos urbanos en América Latina y otras regiones.

Fernandes es coordinador de la Red latinoamericana de regularización del suelo urbano del Instituto Lincoln y ha dado clases en el Instituto durante varios años. Trabajó en la organización y enseñanza de un curso sobre regularización y mercados informales del suelo, realizado en octubre de 2001 y nuevamente en noviembre de 2002 en Lincoln House. En esta conversación con Martim Smolka, Senior Fellow y Director del Programa para América Latina y El Caribe del Instituto Lincoln, se exploran algunos de estos temas.

Martim Smolka: ¿Qué despertó su interés en el tema de los mercados informales del suelo y las políticas de regularización?

Edesio Fernandes: Mi interés en los problemas de los mercados informales del suelo se remonta al comienzo de la década de 1980. Poco después de graduarme de la Escuela de Leyes de la Universidad Federal de Minas de Gerais en Belo Horizonte, Brasil, comencé a trabajar para PLAMBEL, la agencia estatal encargada de la planificación metropolitana de Belo Horizonte. Esta ciudad, si bien fue una de las pocas planeadas de Brasil, fue proyectada con mapas y planos que no contemplaban zonas para las personas de bajos recursos que construyeron la ciudad. Para 1895, dos años antes de su inauguración, ya había 3000 personas viviendo en favelas.

Ese número creció considerablemente a lo largo de las décadas de intensa urbanización. En 1976 se aprobó un plan pionero de zonificación, pero nuevamente las favelas fueron pasadas por alto y se trataron como áreas no ocupadas. En 1983 participé en el equipo interdisciplinario Pro-FAVELA, que redactó una fórmula legal para incorporar estas áreas bajo un esquema revisado de zonificación. Fueron precisamente estos primeros trabajos como urbanista, así como mis labores de construcción de puentes académicos entre los estudios jurídicos y urbanos, que me permitieron explorar la naturaleza de la relación entre las leyes, la planificación y la exclusión socioespacial existente en las ciudades del tercer mundo.

MS: En general, ¿ha tenido esa legislación algún efecto en el estado de las favelas de Belo Horizonte y Brasil?

EF: Hasta la década de 1970 la política oficial brasileña hacia las favelas había sido de desalojo o abandono, con la ocasional prestación de servicios limitados exclusivamente por conveniencia política. El programa Pro-FAVELA fue una experiencia sin precedentes que persiguió materializar ese nuevo compromiso democrático a la inclusión sociopolítica y socioespacial de las favelas en el paisaje urbano. La fórmula aprobada se ha convertido en un paradigma de la regularización del suelo urbano en la mayoría de las ciudades brasileñas. La idea es que se deben crear “zonas especiales de interés social” dentro del esquema de zonificación de la ciudad, permitiendo que los reglamentos de planificación y zonificación se adapten a los requisitos específicos de los habitantes de las favelas. Además, la formulación de políticas específicas de tenencia de suelo debe combinarse con mecanismos inclusivos de planificación urbana y también con procesos institucionales participativos de gestión urbana. Esto permite la integración de asentamientos informales en el sistema de planificación formal y la introducción de servicios e infraestructuras para hacer frente a las omnipresentes desigualdades.

MS: ¿Están ya bien integradas estas metas a los sistemas jurídicos y administrativos de las ciudades brasileñas?

EF: Aunque es cierto que la legislación urbana ha mejorado en Brasil, también es cierto que la mayoría de los cursos de leyes no ofrecen módulos especializados en el uso y control del desarrollo del suelo urbano. Desde tiempos inmemoriales los profesionales de leyes—no sólo en Brasil, sino a lo largo de toda América Latina—han aprendido a adoptar un punto de vista obsoleto e individualista sobre los asuntos jurídicos, típico de una legislación liberal clásica no reformada y con una noción de derechos de propiedad absolutos. Como resultado, estas personas desconocen en gran medida los desarrollos jurídicos recientes y las implicaciones legales de la dinámica socioeconómica y los retos que presenta la urbanización acelerada, y no están conscientes del potencial de los diferentes principios jurídicos que apoyan la legislación urbana, sobretodo de la noción de la función social de la propiedad. Por tanto, no están preparados para lidiar con los inevitables conflictos que surgen del uso y desarrollo del suelo urbano.

Sin embargo, en el año 2001 tuvo lugar en Brasil un hito jurídico revolucionario con la aprobación de la Ley Federal n° 10.257 llamada “Estatuto de la Ciudad”, que se propone regular el capítulo original sobre políticas urbanas introducido por la Constitución de 1988. La nueva ley otorga apoyo legal a aquellas municipalidades que se comprometan a confrontar los graves problemas urbanos, sociales y ambientales que afectan directamente al 82 por ciento de los brasileños que habitan en las ciudades. En términos conceptuales, el Estatuto de la Ciudad rompió con la vieja tradición de derecho civil y establece la base para un nuevo paradigma jurídico-político para el uso y el control del desarrollo del suelo urbano. Las municipalidades deben formular políticas territoriales y de uso del suelo que combinen los intereses individuales de los propietarios con los intereses sociales, culturales y ambientales de otros grupos y de la ciudad como un todo. También se les exige integrar la planificación, legislación y gestión urbana con objeto de democratizar el proceso local de toma de decisiones y legitimizar un nuevo orden jurídico urbano con sesgo social. Asimismo, el Estatuto de la Ciudad puso en marcha instrumentos jurídicos para permitir que las municipalidades pongan en marcha programas de regularización de tenencia de suelo y facilitar el acceso a la vivienda y al suelo urbano.

MS: ¿Puede explicar la relación que hay entre la regularización, la seguridad de tenencia de tierra y las crecientes inquietudes sobre pobreza y justicia social?

EF: Por una parte, los programas de regularización que se concentran en proyectos de mejoramiento han tendido a descuidar los asuntos de tenencia de tierra, por ejemplo, el ponderado programa Favela-Bairro de Rio de Janeiro. Esto ha causado que dichos programas suelan tener resultados nocivos, tales como la ocupación por narcotraficantes, expropiación a la fuerza, e incluso—dada la relación cada vez más compleja entre mercados de suelo formales e informales—lo que se conoce como “desalojo por mercado”. Por otra parte, los programas de regularización que se concentran exclusivamente en la titulación formal de parcelas individuales, tales como los programas a gran escala inspirados por las ideas de Hernando de Soto, han tendido a reforzar las condiciones inaceptables de vida y la construcción de viviendas en áreas remotas, con ambientes desfavorables y desprovistas de servicios.

Por experiencia propia, he visto que los programas que han tratado de combinar las dos dimensiones, es decir, mejoramiento y legalización, tienden a ser los más sostenibles en términos urbanos, sociales y ambientales, así como también suelen tener un efecto más controlado en los mercados de suelo tanto formales como informales. Por tanto, pueden tener más eficacia a la hora de garantizar que los beneficiarios finales de la inversión pública sean justamente los habitantes de los asentamientos informales y no los promotores inmobiliarios y empresas constructoras quienes, al no ofrecer opciones que sean costeables, suficientes y adecuadas, son los primeros que han provocado el proceso de desarrollo informal.

MS: ¿Hasta qué punto han podido estos programas de regularización atacar o ayudar a resolver el problema de la pobreza?

EF: Los programas de regularización son siempre medidas curativas que hay que integrar con políticas preventivas de planificación urbana, medidas fiscales y legales y estrategias de gestión diseñadas para promover un cambio urbano general, y consecuentemente poder romper con ese ciclo característico que lleva a la informalidad urbana. Además, la única manera de que tengan un efecto más significativo sobre la pobreza urbana es combinándolos con otros programas que expandan el acceso a servicios urbanos y originen empleos y entradas económicas para aliviar la pobreza.

En esta discusión hay muchas suposiciones que no pueden darse por sentado, especialmente en vista de los resultados de estudios recientes. Durante años se han invertido cuantiosas sumas de dinero en programas de regularización. Ya es hora de hacer una evaluación crítica y completa. Todavía hay muchas interrogantes sin respuesta referentes a la naturaleza de los procesos que desencadenan los asentamientos irregulares, la manera de enfrentar el problema y el método práctico de poner en práctica las políticas, por ejemplo: ¿Cómo se originan los asentamientos informales? ¿Por qué es importante regularizarlos? ¿Cuándo y cómo se deben formular los programas de regularización? ¿Quién debe pagar por ellos, y cómo? ¿Qué pasa una vez que finaliza el programa?

MS: Como abogado, ¿qué ha aprendido sobre la propuesta legal a las políticas de titulación?

EF: En particular, debemos cuestionar críticamente ese razonamiento tan aceptado que proclama que los títulos son la condición fundamental para que los habitantes de los asentamientos informales tengan acceso a servicios y a crédito y, por ende, para invertir en sus casas y negocios. En general podemos decir que en situaciones consolidadas en donde la ocupación informal del suelo ha sido respaldada por la movilización sociopolítica de los residentes, se ha producido el acceso a servicios e infraestructura sin importar el estado legal de dichos residentes. Trabajos de investigación realizados en varios países ya indican que una serie de circunstancias socioeconómicas y político-institucionales puede crear una percepción de “seguridad de tenencia”, lo cual anima a las personas a invertir en mejoras a sus viviendas aun cuando no haya finalizado el proceso de legalización. Las investigaciones también han demostrado que las personas sin dinero y sin empleo no tienen acceso a créditos formales aunque tengan títulos, mientras que en algunos casos, la gente que tiene trabajo pero no títulos sí tiene acceso a crédito.

MS: ¿Sugiere Ud. entonces que la formalización de los títulos legales no es tan importante?

EF: No, lo que quiero decir es que aunque los títulos pueden aportar seguridad de tenencia individual, no garantizan necesariamente el acceso al crédito formal ni producen asentamientos sostenibles. La regularización por sí sola suele fracasar en lo que, en mi opinión, debería ser el objetivo máximo de los programas de regularización, es decir, la integración socioespacial de las comunidades y áreas informales. Ahora bien, los títulos son claramente importantes desde muchos puntos de vista, por ejemplo, para resolver conflictos domésticos, de familia y de vecindad y para reconocer legalmente los derechos sociopolíticos. El desafío planteado aquí es promover el reconocimiento de la seguridad de tenencia individual de una manera que sea compatible con la provisión de vivienda social, y de esa manera eliminar—o al menos reducir al mínimo posibleÔel proceso de segregación socioespacial. La única manera de lograr esto es mediante una combinación de mecanismos de planificación urbana y estrategias de gestión de ciudad, con políticas innovadoras de tenencia de suelo, con énfasis en la existencia de una gran variedad de opciones legales aparte de los derechos que implican la propiedad absoluta.

MS: El Instituto Lincoln ha participado activamente en estas materias en Latinoamérica durante casi diez años. ¿Tiene Ud. algún comentario final sobre cómo podemos ampliar esta labor?

EF: La centralidad de esta discusión de materias de suelo interrelacionadas—estructura de suelo, acceso al suelo y vivienda, gestión del suelo y control de desarrollo y planificación de uso del suelo—goza de un reconocimiento internacional cada vez mayor, lo cual confirma la importancia de los objetivos originales del Instituto Lincoln y de su programa general de investigación y enseñanza. El tema de desarrollo de suelo urbano informal es de interés para cualquiera que tenga inquietudes relacionadas con la justicia social y los derechos humanos, así como con las condiciones para la expansión de mercados en el contexto de globalización económica.

Para finalizar, quisiera realzar la importancia de la educación y discurso legales. Los cambios urbanos exigen reformas legales, las cuales a su vez requieren un entendimiento adecuado de la naturaleza, problemas y desventajas del orden jurídico imperante y de las posibilidades de cambio consiguientes. Es crucial seguir promocionando actividades comparativas de investigación y enseñanza como las que ya lleva a cabo el Instituto, así como también apoyar redes académicas y políticas tales como IRGLUS y la Red latinoamericana de regularización del suelo urbano. Hay un grupo muy pequeño de profesionales que ha explorado las interfases latinoamericanas entre legislación y planificación y entre legalidad e ilegalidad desde un punto de vista sociojurídico crítico; ese grupo necesita crecer. Hoy más que nunca es fundamental construir caminos jurídicos que respalden nuevos intentos de promover cambios urbanos positivos, incluidos los programas de regularización. Esto no es tarea fácil, pero estamos haciendo progreso.

While it is known as a region of great diversity, Latin America is also characterized by common legacies that directly or indirectly affect land issues. These include a heritage of patrimonialism based on a land ownership structure in which political influences determine the spatial allocation of public investments and services; strong central administrations with weak fiscal accountability at the local level; and a legal tradition with elitist codes and rigid, even anachronistic, land-related legislation. Urban planning, with its physical design bias, has tended to focus on the “legal” city while overlooking the “real” city. At a broader level, investments in the fast-growing built environment (i.e., urbanization) are relatively autonomous from the industrialization process. In a context of weak capital markets and high, often chronic, inflation land frequently takes on the role of a capitalization mechanism or a surrogate for the lack of social security.

Regional Trends

One of the main features of the functioning of urban land markets in Latin America is the magnitude and persistence of illegal, irregular, informal or clandestine activities in accessing and occupying land, largely resulting from the insufficient supply of serviced land at affordable prices. This scarcity of serviced land plays an important role in the region’s social culture, since access to land is often a tacit condition for citizenship and social mobility.

Perhaps most important are the multifaceted trends that are sweeping the continent and are opening new opportunities for urban land policy. First is the widespread re-democratization of many countries after long periods of authoritarian or military regimes, which has had numerous implications on land policy. There is a generalized increase in awareness of public officials’ liability and accountability in urban land management as in other aspects of public administration, as well as the emergence and public recognition of new social agents such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs). New forms of community participation and civil action are the expressions of a heightened consciousness of the need to legitimize alternatives to land access by the urban poor, including innovative modes of collective ownership and attention to gender issues in the regularization of illegally occupied land.

A second and related trend reflects the need for institutional and constitutional reforms accompanied by the redefinition of state roles. This process has had a number of manifestations, including:

• fiscal decentralization, resulting in pressure for new revenue sources at the local level and opportunities to improve on property tax collection;
• political and administrative decentralization, which has increased the power and autonomy of local and intermediate level authorities. This process has created many new responsibilities associated with land market regulation for the provision of services and social housing;
• new instruments for regulatory and fiscal intervention, including the implementation of tools associated with the mobilization of land value increments for the community’s benefit;
• privatization or removal of statutory restrictions on the availability and release to the market of previously state-owned land, thus increasing opportunities to use or reuse existing vacant land;
• new modes of service provision caused in part by the widespread privatization of utilities, with direct implications on the process of land use and redefinition of patterns of spatial segregation;
• the emergence of public/private partnerships in urban development and redevelopment, resulting in a variety of new kinds of urban sub-centers.

A third major development of recent decades has been macro-economic restructuring, which has resulted in the stabilization of the region’s historic and often chronic problems with inflation and has influenced the evolution of land prices. Latin America also has experienced broader trends toward globalization, the opening of national economies, and technological changes. Among other consequences, these trends have led to greater competition among cities for private investments, ranging from the use of strategic planning as a city marketing device to giving up local incentives through fiscal wars. This has greatly affected the economic base of the cities and the nature and scale of urban poverty. Also affected are the types of urban interventions (ranging from large-scale rehabilitation projects of abandoned or depressed areas, to new mixed-use developments in urban fringe areas) that are redefining urban form, city dynamics, and patterns of spatial and social segregation.

Building a Presence

Since 1993, the Lincoln Institute has made a concerted effort to participate in the lively debate over land and taxation policy in Latin America. We adopted a multi-country approach to work wherever we can find issues closely related to our own agenda, pursue opportunities to make a difference for local capacity building, or develop initiatives that could be disseminated and potentially replicated in other countries. This strategy allows us to be present in places where significant policy changes are imminent or where important land-related issues are under discussion.

Experience has shown that the Institute is well positioned to play three important roles that serve our educational mandate: to promote cross-fertilization of ideas, to act as a convenor and facilitator of debates among different stakeholders, and to offer intellectual leadership. As in all Lincoln programs, we place great value on the dissemination of valuable information based largely on case studies that can be used to foster intraregional sharing of knowledge and problem solving. This role of encouraging the cross-fertilization of ideas through horizontal dialogue is particularly important given the centralist nature of public administration in Latin America and the predominance of vertical channels of communication.

The Lincoln Institute’s international credibility and recognition as a respected non-partisan institution concerned with land policy and property taxation issues places us in a unique position to facilitate complex, politically sensitive discussions among different stakeholder groups, particularly public officials at different administrative levels and representatives of the business sector, NGOs, and the political community.

Equally important is the Institute’s role in offering intellectual leadership by helping to bridge the gap between state-of-the-art knowledge and the more practical, immediate needs of public officials dealing directly with the implementation and administration of land use and taxation policies. This role often involves “translating” academic ideas and arguments into the language of practitioners through both printed materials and face-to-face courses and seminars. By supporting research and curriculum development projects, we also draw attention to critical and sometimes unperceived dimensions of complex topics, such as the economic consequences of informality in the access to land. As a resource provider to our international partners, we help identify experts and provide useful case studies and other materials from different countries and contexts.

Networks and Program Focus Areas

Beginning in 1995, the Institute’s Latin American Program developed a core network of representatives from twelve countries with whom we worked closely on both curriculum development and educational programs. Our strategy has evolved as we have gained a more profound understanding of the issues that are pertinent to the Institute’s international agenda. Today we work with several networks of public officials, practitioners and scholars that are organized thematically rather than geographically. These five transnational networks, whose topics are often overlapping and thus mutually reinforcing, are linked to the Institute’s three main program areas.

In the Program on Taxation of Land and Buildings, value capture is the primary topic for which the Institute has definite comparative advantages in the region. We focus on technical and management conditions for the implementation of instruments through which land value increments have been or may be mobilized directly or indirectly (through taxes, fees, exactions and other regulatory means) to promote urban development and to benefit the community at large.

In addition to the use of value capture mechanisms to control urban growth and territorial expansion and to reduce the perverse effects of land speculation, we are interested in their applicability to circumstances characterized by the large-scale and persistent informality in land markets so typical in Latin America. These include situations where land tenure relationships are poorly defined, where land occupations are mostly irregular or illegal, and where significant land value increments are self-generated by the community, rather than by state action. This network explores whether land value increments (resulting directly or indirectly from public interventions) can be mobilized to mitigate urban poverty in general and improve the access to serviced land by low-income families in particular.

Our second network looks at property taxation, assessment and collection. International comparisons have shown that the collection of property taxes in Latin America is generally considered inadequate to meet the needs of rapid urbanization. Strong vertical and horizontal inequities, inefficient collection systems, poor assessment practices, strong influence of historical values, and fragile legal frameworks are among the drawbacks to property tax systems in many areas. Nevertheless, many national efforts, sometimes supported by multilateral agencies, are promoting reforms and improvements in property tax systems. These improvements include the innovative use of self-declaratory systems and sophisticated information systems, creative shifts to land value taxes, and opportunities to reinstate the property tax in countries where it does not currently operate. This network contemplates more interconnected research and educational initiatives, ranging from studies of the pros and cons of shifting to land value taxes, to the role of the property tax in facilitating access to land by the urban poor, and to the use of new operational tools to improve local property taxation goals in general.

Spatial and social segregation are concerns we share with the Institute’s Land Markets Program. The landscape of Latin American cities is often stigmatized by the social distance between neighborhoods that emulate the most elegant sectors of cities in any developed country and those settlements with precarious physical conditions to which the majority of the poor urban population is confined. The formation of this divisive social pattern of land use may be attributed to a number of factors: “white expulsions” through market mechanisms; more subtle exclusionary policies embedded in legal and administrative standards (i.e., urbanistic norms, regulations and credit requirements); or the direct land evictions and removals by force that have occurred in almost all Latin American cities. Much has been written about these processes, yet little has been documented about the policies to prevent them or reverse their outcomes. This network addresses questions such as: What are the policies that have been or could be used, and how effective have they been? What should urban planners know about spatial segregation, and why?

The fourth network, also in the Land Markets area, recognizes the need to review existing regulatory environments in the Latin American land policy agenda and to design new urbanistic norms and regulations that can be complied with more realistically by low-income sectors. This means adequately assessing the effects of alternative regulations on the pattern of land uses, specifically on the access to land and urban services by the urban poor. In most large cities in the region, new high-income developments are increasingly out-competing the less attractive and accessible land traditionally affordable to the urban poor. City managers struggle with the promotion of sustainable inner-city densification and the reutilization of abandoned industrial areas, while also trying to control sprawling land use in urban peripheries.

As part of the Institute’s Land as Common Property Program, security of tenure, regularization and urban upgrading programs are important themes. Many countries throughout the region are making major efforts to set legal and urban regularization programs. However, the implementation of these initiatives is often met by political and practical obstacles. The signals being given by these essentially “curative” programs have significant impacts on the illegal, irregular, informal or clandestine activities of groups seeking to access and occupy urban land. The resolution of disputes around regularization programs and arbitration of adequately assessed values for public acquisitions of land for social interest projects often runs into legal and institutional bottlenecks at the national and local levels. This network seeks to better understand the economic impacts of these programs on the functioning of land markets in general and on the benefited settlements in particular.

Dissemination of Information

While continuing to sponsor research and educational programs in Latin American countries, the Institute is also developing parallel efforts to disseminate information to broader audiences. We have created a Latin American section within the Lincoln Institute website, where we present the full text of many research projects and papers presented in our seminars and conferences, in their original language. Also available on the site are a number of Land Lines articles translated into Spanish.

The Institute is making a concerted effort to systematize all curriculum materials (research papers, seminar presentations, outlines, supporting audiovisual materials and other teaching aids) and products (books, articles, videos) to facilitate the organization and integration of our present and future academic activities. A number of Latin America-related publications are now available or are in the planning stages. For example, an annotated bibliography of materials related to urban land markets in Mexico was recently published and will soon be available on our website. This bibliography should serve as a model for other members of our Latin American networks to publish materials on their countries. In addition, several collections of papers presented as part of on-site education programs are being edited for publication.

This issue of Land Lines lists funded curriculum development and research projects and dissertation fellowships for the current academic year, highlighting those affiliated with the Latin American Program.

Martim Smolka is senior fellow and director of the Institute’s Program in Latin America and the Caribbean, and Laura Mullahy is a research and program assistant.

Latin America: A Region of Great Diversity

A brief look at the region reveals a wide variety of situations regarding the status of land and land markets, as indicated below. The Lincoln Institute has worked with scholars and public officials in each of these countries to understand and address their land policy concerns.

Chile’s liberalization of land markets and virtual elimination of urban land boundaries in 1979 (only partially reinstated in 1985) stands in contrast with Colombia’s current efforts to implement a strong value capture planning tool, “Participación en Plusvalias.” This legislation requires local governments to designate 30 to 50 percent of the land value increment resulting from changes in land designation from rural to urban use for social housing and infrastructure provision in underserved neighborhoods.

Informal settlements and land occupations are dealt with quite differently among Latin American countries. In Argentina there have been virtually no restrictions on land use, and consequently there are no officially recognized illegal settlements. Peru’s governments have recognized freely accessed unserviced land on the urban fringe (arenales) since 1961, while in Ecuador there is a complete absence of norms and regulations to deal with informal occupations.

Significant variations in national land policies are also important. For example, Cuba is unlikely to give up state ownership of the approximately 70 percent of land under its control, whereas Mexico passed national legislation in 1992 that allowed for the privatization of the land held under its ejido system.

Una versión más actualizada de este artículo está disponible como parte del capítulo 4 del libro Perspectivas urbanas: Temas críticos en políticas de suelo de América Latina.

En muchas ciudades brasileñas, los impuestos a la tierra y las edificaciones son muy poco utilizados. Según datos del Instituto Brasileño de Administración Municipal (IBAM), por ejemplo, en la mitad de los municipios de más de 50.000 habitantes el impuesto a la propiedad representa menos del 30% del total de los recursos tributarios. Considerando que para la mayoría de estos municipios los ingresos a cuenta de impuestos locales representan menos del 30% de los recursos totales, los impuestos a la propiedad no sobrepasan al 10% de los recursos financieros de los municipios (incluyendo transferencias intergubernamentales). Tales porcentajes resultan incluso menores en los municipios más pequeños. Otros impuestos basados en la tierra, tales como el impuesto a la transferencia de bienes raíces y el impuesto a las mejoras a la propiedad presentan un patrón de resultados igualmente desalentadores.

Especialmente a partir de la nueva Constitución brasileña de 1998, cuando la responsabilidad principal de planificación del uso de la tierra fue transferida al nivel local, los municipios se han vuelto cada vez más conscientes de que la regulación del uso de la tierra y las inversiones públicas en infraestructura introducen cambios en el valor de la tierra. Muchos empleados oficiales públicos están actualmente tratando de desarrollar estrategias de planificación para capturar parte de los beneficios “gratuitos” resultantes. A la vez, los gobiernos locales están encontrando problemas en la aplicación de instrumentos tradicionales de planificación tales como el Plano Diretor, una medida constitucional que requiere que las ciudades con poblaciones mayores de 20.000 habitantes desarrollen un plan maestro. Estas ciudades se encuentran cada vez más involucradas en el debate sobre la flexibilidad del marco regulativo del uso de la tierra. Consecuentemente, la idea de una zonificación flexible a cambio de contribuciones de los promotores se ha vuelto también popular.

Para investigar los aspectos económicos, financieros y de planificación urbana de estos cambios negociados en el uso de la tierra, el Instituto Lincoln y la Municipalidad de Santo André (Estado de São Paulo) organizaron un programa de tres días sobre “Instrumentos y Técnicas de Financiamiento del Desarrollo Urbano en base a la Tierra” en mayo de 1998. Durante los dos primeros días, empleados municipales de Santo André se reunieron con conferencistas invitados para compartir sus experiencias en instrumentos de zonificación, captura del valor y desarrollo económico local en lugares tan diversos como Nueva York, Ciudad de México y Colombia. Las discusiones abarcaron tres temas generales: la captura del valor y el financiamiento urbano; la planificación urbana y el mercado de la tierra; y las negociaciones y asociaciones público-privadas.

El programa finalizó con un debate público que incluyó a una audiencia regional de aproximadamente 200 planificadores, promotores y representantes de organizaciones no gubernamentales, del sector privado y de las comunidades locales dentro de la región del Gran ABC (siete municipios alrededor de São Paulo, incluyendo a Santo André, que en conjunto constituyen el área industrial más densa de Latinoamérica). Un grupo de discusión sobre la efectividad de las negociaciones en base a la tierra y las asociaciones público-privadas en el contexto brasileño contó con la participación de conferencistas de la Universidad de São Paulo, del sector de bienes raíces y de los gobiernos locales.

Numerosas conclusiones se derivaron del programa. Primero, los cambios negociados del uso de la tierra típicamente se producen en ambientes donde los impuestos a la propiedad no funcionan bien. En Santo André, por ejemplo, las restricciones operativas y legales existentes dificultan el reacondicionamiento del sistema de impuestos a la propiedad (ver Figura 1).

Segundo, los cambios negociados del uso de la tierra en Santo André parecen acompañar un cambio continuo de usos industriales a usos asociados con el moderno sector terciario de servicios. A través del proceso de negociación, se introduce una mayor flexibilidad dentro del existente marco legal, como se ha observado en las recientes negociaciones entre el centro comercial Plaza ABC y Pirelli, la empresa multinacional de fabricación de neumáticos. Tercero, aun cuando las negociaciones del uso de la tierra aparentemente satisfacen expectativas en lo que se refiere a complementar la dinámica de la economía local, no hay una metodología ni un marco bien establecidos que permitan definir reglas claras y estables basadas en un análisis sólido de costo y beneficios. En comparación con experiencias internacionales como la de Nueva York, resulta difícil prever las compensaciones monetarias que se pueden esperar en las ciudades brasileñas y si dichas compensaciones son realmente eficientes (en términos de Pareto) vis-a-vis situaciones en las que el permiso de desarrollo se hubiese negado.

Finalmente, los cambios negociados del uso de la tierra deben ser vistos como un elemento esencial de la estrategia general de desarrollo económico local. En la región del Gran ABC, las asociaciones estratégicas entre inversionistas de los sectores público y privado son cada vez más importantes en vista del proceso constante de reestructuración local y regional que ha tenido dramáticos efectos negativos en los niveles de ingreso y de empleo.

Entre las lecciones que nos ofrece el programa de Santo André está la necesidad de desarrollar mejores medidas para calcular los aumentos del valor de la tierra causados por los cambios de zonificación, a fin de poder desarrollar medios para capturar esos valores a través de sistemas más eficaces de tasación. Además, la experiencia de Nueva York muestra que es mejor recolectar impuestos a tasas más bajas por medio de un sistema universal y estable, que en base a una negociación arbitraria caso por caso, la cual puede prestarse al abuso y a la corrupción.

Jeroen Klink, economista urbano, es consejero del alcalde de Santo André. Anteriormente fue Dissertation Fellow del Instituto Lincoln, y se encuentra completando su tesis de doctorado sobre “Fuentes de Financiamiento Urbano: la Aplicabilidad del Modelo Estándar Económico al Caso Brasileño” en la Escuela de Arquitectura y Urbanismo de la Universidad de São Paulo, Brasil. Luis Carlos Afonso, economista, es Secretario de Finanzas de Santo André. Irineu Bagnariolli Jr., sociólogo urbano, es Secretario de Vivienda y Desarrollo Urbano de Santo André.

Figura 1: Limitaciones a la Revisión del Impuesto a la Propiedad

En 1993, la administración de la ciudad de Santo André aprobó una ley otorgando un descuento del 40% en el impuesto a la propiedad. Dicho descuento iba a ser válido solamente durante ese año. Sin embargo, la reducción ha sido mantenida como resultado de varias cláusulas legales que determinan que el valor del impuesto en el año en curso no puede exceder el valor del año anterior, estableciendo así un límite al impuesto.

Otra restricción al uso más agresivo del impuesto, especialmente a fin de promover una tasación más equitativa, es la interpretación dada por la Corte Suprema de que el impuesto no puede ser progresivo. La única excepción permitida es la aplicación penal por desuso o falta de uso de la propiedad, cláusula que en sí misma depende de la emisión de nuevas leyes federales y que ni siquiera ha sido discutida por el Congreso. (Claudia M. De Cesare, “Usando el Impuesto a la Propiedad para la Captura del Valor: el Caso de Brasil”, Land Lines, enero de 1998).

Durante 1990 y 1991, una administración previa en Santo André trató de otorgar descuentos al impuesto a la propiedad basados en las características físicas, el uso actual y el tamaño de la propiedad, pero la iniciativa fue rechazada posteriormente por dictamen de la Corte a causa de su supuesto carácter progresivo oculto. Así, el límite a los impuestos a la propiedad, a pesar de ser revocado formalmente por una ley posterior, permanece básicamente inalterado, ya que si los impuestos fueran aumentados los sectores más pobres de la población serían los más afectados en forma negativa.

Finalmente, en Santo André y en todas las ciudades brasileñas, el valor del metro cuadrado de tierra está fijado por ley, lo cual impide la capacidad de la administración urbana de aplicar impuestos a la propiedad de bienes raíces de acuerdo con su valor en el mercado.

Increasing socio-economic and spatial disparities in Latin American cities have prompted a revival of interest in equity-oriented government policies to reduce those disparities. However, solutions to the major urban problems being faced today must go far beyond the implementation of inconsistent and narrowly defined actions. The solutions must ensure equity for all sectors of society. In too many places, entire neighborhoods are forced to exist under deplorable living conditions while government agencies seek to evict residents in the name of environmental protection. It is evident that urban legislation can no longer ignore the rights of people to have a place in which to live in security and dignity.

The critical impact of land inequity on the urban environment requires that the urban poor gain access to the technical information necessary to better negotiate their concerns with public officials. My research explores the role of environmental education in low-income communities in developing countries. Taking a perspective based on self-help capacity building, my goal is to develop programs to train community leaders at the grassroots level to deal more effectively with local land use conflicts and environmental risks.

Impacts of Land Inequity

Like many Latin American cities, Rio de Janeiro is strongly affected by prevailing poverty and environmental degradation. Complex factors are involved: economic instability, inequitable land ownership, short-sighted development policies, and a lack of a democratic system that provides for human rights and freedoms. In my view, the problems experienced by Rio de Janeiro during the last few decades are mainly a result of existing “apartheid” urban planning assumptions and a lack of political will to incorporate the popular sectors in land use policy making.

In the region of Baixada de Jacarepaguá-at the heart of the core expansion area of Rio de Janeiro-the extraordinary process of urban growth since the 1970s has provoked dramatic changes in the landscape, as well as a variety of environmental problems. Amidst the spectacular natural beauty of lagoon ecosystems, mangrove forests and wetlands, the region remains home to a large population of urban poor who live in favelas-shanty communities resulting from largely uncontrolled urbanization of public land.

During the 1980s and early 1990s, the region enjoyed an unprecedented development boom that has fostered unsustainable patterns of land use. Discrimination against the poor inhabitants and inequalities in landownership allowed landowners and speculators to capitalize on the boom by formally obtaining titles and subdividing the land. In addition, a select group of private builders injected themselves into the local scene with multiple court permits to develop the region for high-income residential condominiums, commercial establishments and industrial enterprises.

Increasing pressures on the land snowballed into a wide range of protests between the popular sectors and the powerful land developers, posing the threat of forced eviction of the poor inhabitants. The accumulated discontent against the government for failing to control land speculation and ensure protective legislation created an extremely dangerous situation. Violence and persecution claimed the lives of 30 community leaders, presidents of local community associations, their family members and relatives. The murders were carried out by what are known in the region as “extermination squads,” and no criminal investigation has taken place.

The Vicious Cycle of Poverty and Environmental Degradation

Since poverty and environmental degradation are interdependent, it is appropriate to think of environmental concerns in terms of social justice. My research revolves around the problems of inequality and the environmental risks faced by the residents of the Via Park village-an informal settlement located in the region of Baixada de Jacarepaguá. A basic question arising from this research is to what extent can improved access to land equity actually contribute to mitigate the factors that encourage environmental degradation. By connecting land use issues to the learning process of environmental education, the research demonstrates that environmental degradation is a recurring phenomenon manifested in the inequitable ways land has been used and distributed in the region.

Via Park village has been caught in a serious land use struggle since the 1970s, when urban development began to impact many traditional fishing communities in the area. Builders were eager to lobby the government to break the fishermen’s land tenure system, which was enforced by law, and thereby turn the land over to market forces. In the 1980s, the area was designated a public reserve for environmental preservation, enshrined in Article 225 of the Brazilian Constitution (1988). Since the village was located on protected land, the city’s planning authorities then argued that the Via Park residents had no legitimate claims of ownership.

Living in an atmosphere of fear and at mercy of the land developers and speculators who continued to flourish, the Via Park residents started illegally subdividing and selling small parcels of land to new settlers. The growth of the poor population and the concentration of land ownership and speculation contributed to the expansion of informal land markets into nearby low-income communities.

Underlying these practices was a more complex system of commercial transactions and civil relations governing the invasion of vacant lands, as well as the division and sale of plots. Throughout Rio de Janeiro, land development through informal channels is the predominant “territorial pact” by which disadvantaged local groups have been able to gain access to land and housing. At the same time, agents from the “formal world” have developed political arrangements to support and take advantage of existing informal land markets.

It was in this context that a program for grassroots environmental improvement was conceived and eventually implemented in Via Park village. However, given the residents’ long history of exclusion-including threats of forced eviction-they remained suspicious. It became clear that successful program implementation would depend on managerial strategies based on an integrated vision of the geographic/ecological and social/cultural environment.

If the dilemma of poverty and environmental degradation is to be overcome, then the task of improving the environment must be shown to be compatible with the struggle for land equity. This innovative approach toward environmental education differs from traditional methodology, which is generally more concerned with simply introducing physical changes to the environment. The key here is to focus on the conditions that are favorable for the development and exercise of a sense of “community belonging”-a tangible expression of shared sentiments, values and identities where land is understood not only as a component of wealth, but as a common settled place invested with symbolic meanings.

Lessons of Via Park Village

While there is no single solution to the social and environmental vulnerability of the urban poor living in the Via Park village, their experience does offer some insights. One alternative suggests creating “urban natural reserves” integrated into the community where those threatened with forced eviction are encouraged to maintain their traditional lifestyles. In exchange, government authorities at all levels would accept the obligation to promote land equity, giving security of tenure and protection to those forced by circumstances to live in informal settlements.

Aspects of the environmental education program initiated in the Via Park village are applicable to other Latin American cities. The fundamental principle is based on insuring respect for the inherent identity of the community. The experience of the Via Park residents demonstrates that local action can contribute to consolidating a socio-political struggle for land equity with protection of the environment. This is in line with current thinking about land use and environmental management, which suggests an integrated approach that acknowledges the leadership role of the local residents.

The Via Park case reveals that a routine excuse being used to justify evictions is “protecting the environment.” In other words, the urban poor most often accused of being the primary protagonists of environmental degradation are in reality the greatest victims. For the 450 residents of the Via Park village, the trauma of being forcibly evicted from their homes will never be overcome. Five people, including two children and one woman, lost their lives in the confrontation. The Via Park village, now destroyed by bulldozers, still reminds us that hope for land equity lies in community solidarity, effective governance and democracy.

Sonia Pereira is a visiting fellow of the Lincoln Institute. She is also completing her Ph.D. thesis from the Institute of Earth Sciences of the Federal University in Rio de Janeiro, with support from a Fulbright scholarship. An environmental lawyer, biologist, social psychologist and activist on behalf of human rights, she has been widely recognized for her work on environmental protection for low-income communities in Brazil. She is a Citizen of the World Laureate (World Peace University, 1992) and a Global 500 Laureate (United Nations Environment Programme-UNEP, 1996).

The Lincoln Institute’s Latin America program pursues education and research projects with universities and local governments throughout Central and South America and the Caribbean. These activities are especially salient now given many political and economic changes affecting Latin American land markets. For example, the (re)democratization of the continent is engaging a larger segment of the society in designing viable, innovative programs for local administrations of competing political parties.

In addition, institutional and in many cases constitutional reforms are affecting land values and landownership rights and regulations. Structural adjustment programs to curb inflation and overcome the economic crises of the 1980s are changing attitudes regarding holding land either as an investment or a reserve of value. Frequent speculative switches between land holdings and other financial assets according to the caprices of the prevailing ‘economic environment’ have been a planner’s nightmare in Latin America.

The forces of globalization and urbanization also contribute to significant and changing pressures on the use of land. More and more, Los Angeles-style landscapes can be found in certain suburbs of Sao Paulo, Santiago or Mexico City. While loss of the region’s biodiversity is well documented, Latin America is also at risk of losing its land use diversity.

In spite of these common themes, Latin America is hardly a homogeneous entity. Its diversity emerges clearly when examining the landownership and land market structures of different countries. For example:

The Chilean glorification of land markets contrasts with Cuba’s virtual elimination of land markets and resulting residential segregation.

Mexico had a unique experience with communal (ejido) lands that are now being privatized with important implications for new urban expansion.

In Brazil, frequent land conflicts, many with tragic consequences to the landless, can be attributed to a long-promised land reform yet to be implemented.

In Paraguay, until its recent democratization, land was traditionally attributed by the hegemonic political party, simply by-passing the market. In Argentina, on the other hand, the state uses its considerable stock of fiscal land to facilitate international investments in property developments directly through the market.

Nicaragua’s past land redistribution is probably responsible for the vigor of the recently liberalized property market and the strong land reconcentration processes now under way.

The booming land markets of Ecuador and Venezuela have often been attributed to the ease of laundering drug money from neighboring Colombia, where regulations are stricter.

Given this diversity, the Institute’s Latin America program is focusing its education and research efforts on building a network of highly qualified scholars and policymakers. Representing different countries and a variety of academic and professional backgrounds, they help identify topics of proven relevance for the region. Some examples of current topics grounded in public officials’ actual and anticipated needs are: rekindling the debate on the functioning of urban land markets; closing the gap between formal and informal land markets; and implementing new land policy instruments.

Access to land by the low-income urban population is the issue that best captures the hearts and minds of many researchers and public officials. Two connected research themes are 1) the mechanisms that generate residential segregation or exclusion through the market by private or public agents; and 2) the strategies of ‘the excluded’ to access land and subsequently formalize their ‘inclusion.’ Most of the Institute’s education programs being developed in Latin America to deal with land management and instruments of public intervention are informed directly or indirectly by this issue.

For many public officials in the region, land reform is a sensitive issue and capturing land value increments generated by public action is still seen suspiciously as a subversive idea. Thus, the Lincoln Institute is in a unique position as a neutral facilitator capable of collaborating with Latin American scholars and public officials as well as experts from the United States to provide a comparative, international perspective on land policy ideas and experiences.

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Martim Smolka, Senior Fellow of the Institute since September 1995, is on leave as associate professor at the Urban and Regional Research and Planning Institute at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

I am pleased to report that the Lincoln Institute has signed an agreement of understanding with the Ministry of Land and Resources in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) to work together on researching and teaching about land and tax policies. Many places in the world face fundamental problems in land allocation and land taxation, but it is difficult to imagine a place and time where the resources of the Lincoln Institute could be more influential and could help more people than in China during the early twenty-first century.

Land and tax policy makers in China are faced with enormous challenges as a result of the extraordinary urbanization of the past two decades. The number of established cities in China grew from 182 in 1982 to 324 in 1985, and reached 666 by 1996, and the average urban population grew by 227 percent between 1957 and 1995. Some cities grew by 200 percent from 1985 to 1995, and the urbanized area of Beijing doubled from 1985 to 1992. However, the extent of urbanization in the future will dwarf that of the recent past. Based on forecasts of population growth and migration, China must provide enough urban land and infrastructure to accommodate more than 450 million persons over the next 20 years. If all of the additional urban population were put in new cities of 10 million persons each, China would need to develop and finance 45 such cities.

China initiated fundamental and revolutionary land use reforms during the mid-1980s. The first reforms established privately held land use rights. The second set of reforms included multiple elements, such as land banking, land trusts, land readjustments, and development of land markets in both urban and rural areas. We believe that the Institute can make a real difference in assisting these reform measures by sponsoring education and training for government officials, supporting research and publications by U.S. and Chinese scholars, and facilitating more in-depth interactions through workshops and conferences.

Over the past two years the Institute has led two training programs in Beijing and participated in meetings between Chinese officials and scholars and Institute board members, faculty and staff. The Institute also sponsored several sessions on land and housing markets in the PRC at the First World Planning Congress in Shanghai in 2001. We anticipate several more training and exchange programs this year, but we believe this is still just the beginning of an expanded effort by the Institute to have a positive impact on land and tax policy in the world’s most populous country. In this issue, Institute faculty associates Chengri Ding and Gerrit Knaap examine some of the recent reforms and current trends in urban land policy in China.

The twenty-first century will witness record growth in the number and distribution of private residential communities. Collectively referred to as common interest communities (CICs) or common interest developments (CIDs), these communities rely on covenants, conditions and restrictions to privately govern and control land use, design decisions, services and social conduct. The communities own, operate and manage the residential property within their boundaries, including open space, parking, recreational facilities and streets. Although CICs historically have been the domain of the affluent, they are now becoming a viable choice for both suburban and urban residential development. Taking the form of condominiums, cooperatives, and single- and multifamily homes, both gated and nongated private communities are spreading among diverse economic and social classes.

A Worldwide Phenomenon

The proliferation of private communities in the United States is causing an unprecedented transition from traditional individual ownership to collective governance of property, signaling a remarkable shift in the American political and economic landscape. This trend establishes a new micro-scale level of governance beneath existing municipal structures, and highlights other tensions between the public and private sectors.

Indeed, the numbers provide a clear indication of this movement’s strength. At the end of the twentieth century, about 47 million Americans lived in condominiums, cooperatives and homeowner associations (HOAs). Growing from only 500 in the 1960s to an estimated 231,000 in 1999, HOAs now comprise almost 15 percent of the national housing stock, with an estimated addition of 8,000 to 10,000 private developments each year. In the 50 largest metropolitan areas, more than half of all new housing is now built under the governance of neighborhood associations. In California—particularly in the Los Angeles and San Diego metropolitan areas—this figure exceeds 60 percent (Treese 1999).

Recent press coverage and research from Europe, Africa, South America and Asia suggest that CICs are rapidly being popularized in other parts of the world as well. Although gated communities are still rare in Britain, former prime minister Margaret Thatcher reportedly moved into such a community in South London. In South Africa, where secure communities were an unavoidable consequence of racism, post-apartheid gated developments are inhabited by all races, and not only by the wealthy. In Saudi Arabia private compounds of linked houses provide extended families with privacy and identity. Those compounds seem to be a reaction to the single residential typology imported from abroad during the country’s modernization period.

Since the economic reforms of the early 1980s, many residential areas in Chinese cities have walls to improve security and define social status. Often these developments are designed by U.S. companies and based on U.S. planning and design standards. Private communities in Southeast Asia, such as in Indonesia, are marketed as places that allow the differentiation of lifestyle and give prestige and security to their inhabitants. In Latin America sprawling gated communities at the metropolitan edges of Santiago, Chile, Bogotá, Colombia, and other cities have become the norm for a growing professional class in need of a secure lifestyle in an environment dominated by social and economic poverty. The deteriorating political and economic state of affairs in Buenos Aires, Argentina, has resulted in situations where developers and private companies provide privatized “public” services that attract large sectors of the population to private developments housing up to half a million people (Environment and Planning B 2002).

Dual Governance, Rules and Outcomes

The spread of CICs in the U.S. is driven by the mutual interests of developers and local governments, including planning officials. Developers benefit because they can maintain profits—despite the high costs of land and infrastructure—by introducing efficient land design schemes and, often, higher densities. Local governments prefer CICs because they privatize infrastructure and reduce public costs. At the same time, consumers see a way to protect their property values through the ability to control their neighborhood character by using compliance and enforcement mechanisms. CICs also provide consumers greater infrastructure options, recreational amenities and community services.

The growing fiscal crisis experienced by many local governments means they are often unable to respond to such traditional community demands as building and maintaining streets, collecting garbage, snowplowing and other services. The establishment of a separate legal mechanism within a private neighborhood association allows collective control over a neighborhood’s common environment and the private provision of common services. Perhaps more important, this trend creates a de facto deregulation of municipal subdivision standards and zoning, because cities and towns allow for a different, more flexible set of standards to be implemented in private developments. Often, the results are innovative spatial and architectural layouts and, sometimes, unusually sensitive environmental design. This shift in neighborhood governance enables a resultant shift in the design of residential developments that heretofore has not been fully appreciated.

A recent nationwide survey of public officials and developers gauges the impacts of subdivision regulations on the design of residential developments and the practices of developers in rapidly growing regions of the country (Ben-Joseph 2003). It assesses attitudes and perceptions and identifies the issues regarding subdivision regulations that members of the housing industry and the regulatory agencies feel are affecting housing development.

Excessive Regulations

As early as 1916 Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., commented on subdivision standards and regulations.

While such regulations are intended only to guard against the evil results of ignorance and greed on the part of landowners and builders, they also limit and control the operations of those who are neither ignorant nor greedy; and it is clear that the purpose in framing and enforcing them should be to leave open the maximum scope for individual enterprise, initiative and ingenuity that is compatible with adequate protection of the public interests. Such regulations are, and always should be, in a state of flux and adjustment—on the one hand with a view to preventing newly discovered abuses, and on the other hand with a view to opening a wider opportunity of individual discretion at points where the law is found to be unwisely restrictive. (Olmsted 1916, 3)

Indeed, developers in the 2003 survey clearly expressed their frustration with the excessive and often unwarranted nature of physical improvements and standards associated with subdivision development. When asked to indicate which types of requirements present the greatest expense in conforming to regulations, an overwhelming majority (80 percent) pointed to requirements associated with site design. When asked to indicate which specific requirements they perceived as excessive, 52 percent of the respondents indicated those relating to street design and construction, with almost 45 percent indicating land dedication and 43 percent storm sewer systems (underground piping for storm water mitigation). When asked about which physical standards within each category were seen as excessive, those most frequently cited were street widths (75 percent of the respondents), street rights-of-way (73 percent) and requirements of land for open space (73 percent). Most developers also mentioned water and sewer hook-up fees (85–90 percent) and payments in lieu of land dedication (79 percent) as being excessive monetary requirements associated with physical improvements (see Table 1).

While one might expect that developers would criticize regulations as interfering in their business, it is important to note that most respondents were selective in their answers to the survey. Out of 29 requirements listed in Table 1, only 13 were considered excessive by the majority of developers, while 16 others were deemed reasonable. Such results indicate that many developers are tuned in to construction and design performance, and their attitude toward regulation cannot always be assumed to be negative.

Furthermore, the surveyed public officials (town planners and town engineers) often concurred with the developers’ observations. Generally these officials agreed that the regulatory process, such as the enforcement of subdivision regulations, has become more demanding and complex. Over the past five years, for example, 70 percent of the jurisdictions where these public officials work have introduced new requirements, and 57 percent have increased specifications, such as those for setbacks and lot sizes. Only 16 percent of these jurisdictions have decreased their specifications, mostly by reducing street widths.

Relief from Subdivision Regulations

Two-thirds of residential developers consider government regulations, particularly those pertaining to the design and control of subdivisions, the main culprit in prohibiting design innovation and increasing the cost of housing. More specifically, they see these regulations as an impediment to increasing densities, changing housing types, and reconfiguring streets and lots.

One way developers try to relax these regulations is through requests for relief in the form or zoning or design variances. More than half of the surveyed developers (52 percent) had to apply for some sort of relief in at least half of their projects, while 37 percent had to apply in at least three-fourths of their projects. When asked to point to the type of changes they requested, many indicated higher-density single-family projects, more multifamily units, and more varied site and structural plans. The majority of the developers in the survey responded that they sought to increase the density of housing units on their sites, but 72 percent noted that because of existing regulations they had to design lower-density developments than they wanted. Some developers reported that regulations forced them to build in greenfield locations away from major urban areas, where restrictions and abutters’ objections were less onerous.

Although almost all of the public officials (83 percent) reported that their jurisdictions require private developments to follow established subdivision regulations, the enforcement of these standards through the approval process is malleable. In some cases, when such a development is classified as a condominium, which may include attached and/or detached dwelling units, no formal review of street standards is required. In fact, the majority of public officials surveyed (61 percent) indicated that their jurisdictions allow for narrower streets to be constructed within private developments. One respondent stated, “Variances are more easily granted within private road systems since the county will not have any maintenance responsibility or liability.”

The practice of building narrower roadways and offering smaller building setbacks within private subdivisions has become widely accepted over the last decade. A street standards survey completed in 1995 showed that 84 percent of the cities responding allowed for different street standards in such developments, and that they more readily accepted the introduction of different paving materials, changes in street configurations, and the employment of traffic calming devices (Ben-Joseph 1995).

Design Benefits

Both public officials and developers acknowledge the design benefits associated with private subdivisions (see Table 2). Fifty-seven percent of officials indicated that private developments are introducing innovative design in the form of building arrangements and unit clustering. Forty-one percent felt that such developments permit the introduction of housing types not found elsewhere in their communities, and 61 percent indicated that they allow for narrower street standards to be incorporated.

While public officials see the benefits of pushing the design envelope within the confines of the development itself, many are also concerned about the social implications and impacts of these private developments on their surrounding communities. “As a matter of policy,” a survey respondent wrote, “gated private communities are discouraged as they are not in keeping with the urban form, which calls for an interconnecting network of vehicular and pedestrian movement. In addition, the walling of neighborhoods from arterial roadways should be avoided by alternatives such as the placement of other compatible uses along the periphery.”

Both developers and public officials believe that common subdivision regulations restrict alternative solutions, and they see privatizing subdivisions as a vehicle for simplifying the approval process and introducing design innovation. As one of the developers remarked, “Regular subdivision codes don’t allow flexibility. Lots are too standardized and streets use too much area. If I could build narrow streets and small lots, developments controlled by covenants and HOAs will not be necessary.” The ability to provide design choices and efficient layouts and to avoid a lengthy approval process drives both public and private sectors to offer CICs rather than typical subdivisions. Indeed, it seems that in the last decade most innovation in subdivision design has sprung from within the private domain and under the governance of community associations rather than within the public realm through traditional means.

Toward Better Subdivisions

The proliferation of CICs, with their ability to plan, design and govern outside of public boundaries, can be seen as an indicator of a failed public system. When developers and public officials resort to privatization to achieve a more responsive design outcome, and when local jurisdictions acknowledge that privatized communities provide a straightforward way to grant variations and innovation, then something is wrong with the existing parameters of subdivision codes and regulations.

For the last 25 years the subdivision approval process has increased in complexity, in the number of agencies involved, in the number of delays, and in the regular addition of new requirements (Seidel 1978). Both developers and public officials acknowledge that the application for variances and changes in subdivision regulations are lengthy and cumbersome. Therefore, it is not surprising that developers see private projects governed by HOAs as not only responding to market demands and trends, but also introducing planning and design concepts that are often not allowed or are difficult to get authorized under the typical approval process.

CICs are enabling developers to maintain profits and keep the design process relatively open-ended and flexible. The ability to operate outside the regular, common set of subdivision regulations allows developers to offer various design solutions that fit the local setting, the targeted site and the prospective consumers. In some cases these can be attractive, high-density yet affordable single-family developments, and in others low-density, high-end yet ecologically sensitive construction (McKenzie 2003).

The concept of private communities as environmentally sensitive developments may seem a contradiction in terms. However, some of these developments provide examples of responsible construction that minimizes environmental impact while maximizing economic value. In Dewees Island, South Carolina, there are few impervious road surfaces, allowing full restoration of the underground aquifer. Only vegetation indigenous to the local coastal plains is allowed. This xeriscaping approach removes the need for irrigation, fertilizers and pesticides. In addition, homes are required to use water conservation fixtures, reducing water consumption by 60 percent.

Paradoxically, while CICs are often controlled and managed by strict covenants and regulations, their initial design is very much outside the mainstream regulatory apparatus. It is precisely for this reason that they prove to be more flexible in their design solutions and more agreeable to developers, consumers and local governments.

How can such flexibility be integrated in the regular planning process? Can subdivision regulations be made more accommodating and less prescriptive? Will such an approach level the playing field and allow for more housing choices and greater design variety in the public domain? Will such changes promote developers to plan subdivisions endowed with CICs’ design qualities without their restrictive covenants and privatized shared spaces? And conversely, can CICs, while exhibiting great variation in architecture and site design features, be made less controlling in their management policies?

There are many issues raised by the spread of CICs, but none is more important than the realization that public policy and subdivision regulations must allow and promote more variety in housing styles and development options. Consumers should not be forced into CICs because they are the only type of development that offers a lively choice of features. CICs should be seen as a catalyst to change subdivision standards and regulations and as a vehicle to create a bridge between public officials and developers. Through the use of CICs developers are not only able to circumvent existing regulations, lower development costs and in some cases produce quite innovative community design solution, but also enable jurisdictions to secure new taxpayers with less public expenditure.

Not all CICs are created equal, and many are far from perfect. But, in terms of design efficiency, utilization of space, and integration of social and environmental amenities, private communities illustrate the shortcomings of many standards applied to typical subdivisions.

References

Ben-Joseph, Eran. 1995. Residential street standards and neighborhood traffic control: A survey of cities’ practices and public officials’ attitudes. Berkeley: Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California at Berkeley.

———. 2003. Subdivision regulations—Practices and attitudes: A survey of public officials and developers in the nation’s fastest growing single-family housing markets. Working paper. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. 2002. Theme issue: The global spread of gated communities 29(3).

McKenzie, Evan. 2003. Common-interest housing in the communities of tomorrow. Housing Policy Debate 14(1/2):203–234.

Olmsted, Frederick L., Jr. 1916. Basic principles of city planning. In City planning: A series of papers presenting the essential elements of a city plan, John Nolen, ed., 1–18. New York: D. Appleton and Company.

Seidel, S. 1978. Housing costs and government regulations: Confronting the regulatory maze. New Brunswick: Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey.

Treese, Clifford. 1999. Community associations factbook. Alexandria, VA: Community Associations Institute.

Eran Ben-Joseph is associate professor of landscape architecture and planning in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. This article is based in part on his survey and research that were supported by the Lincoln Institute.

The prevailing land use regulation and land tax laws in the United States make the Kelo case and the use of eminent domain for private development particularly dramatic, especially compared to other countries.

Like many schoolchildren, I learned that years ago a squirrel could cross the country from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean never touching the ground, using our magnificent forests as an aerial highway. After massive clearing and development for agriculture, cities, and roads, those forests are now a tattered patchwork, and are nonexistent in many places. More than a squirrel’s dilemma, though, the loss and altering of America’s forests have created both an enormous challenge to climate health and an opportunity for climate policy and action.

Sustaining local communities will require mechanisms to envision and plan for the future and to engage residents in the process. Scenario planning is an increasingly effective way to address these efforts, and Western Lands and Communities, the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy’s joint venture with the Sonoran Institute, is working to advance the necessary tools.

Scenario Planning to Address Uncertainty

Land use decisions and planning efforts are critical as communities look 20 to 50 years into the future to guide policy choices and public investments that are sustainable across economic, social, and environmental dimensions. As uncertainty increases and available resources decrease, it becomes ever more important to consider the full range of emerging conditions and to strive to ensure our ability to respond to those changes, adopt policies, and pursue investments that will be resilient across a variety of potential futures.

Key areas of uncertainty include population and demographic changes, economic trends, climatic variability and change, resource costs and availability, land markets, housing preferences, housing affordability, and the fiscal health of local governments. Simultaneous with increasing uncertainty and decreasing resources, or perhaps in part because of them, decision makers face conflicting perspectives on desired futures and on the role of government in providing services and infrastructure as well as regulation and planning.

Increased polarization means that more civic engagement and an informed and supportive public are needed to ensure stable policies and adequate investments in a community’s future. Scenario planning offers a mechanism to address these needs and issues of potential uncertainty and conflict. Fortunately, as the scope and complexity of planning and the demand for broader engagement have increased, advances in computing power and public access to technology are making new and more powerful tools available.

The Lincoln Institute has a long history of supporting the development of planning tools and publishing the results (Hopkins and Zapata 2007; Campoli and MacLean 2007; Brail 2008; Kwartler and Longo 2008; Condon, Cavens, and Miller 2009). This article covers lessons learned from the use of scenario planning tools in several projects undertaken by Western Lands and Communities (WLC), as well as mechanisms to expand their application.

Superstition Vistas

Superstition Vistas is a 275-square-mile expanse of vacant state-owned trust land on the urbanizing edge of the Phoenix metropolitan area (figure 1). State trust lands such as this site in Arizona are key to future growth patterns because the state owns 60 percent of the available land in the path of development. Colorado and New Mexico to a lesser degree face similar opportunities with their state trust lands (Culp, Laurenzi, and Tuell 2006). Creative thinking about the future of Superstition Vistas began to gain momentum in 2003, and the Lincoln Institute, through the WLC joint venture, was an early proponent of these efforts (Propst 2008).

Initial WLC objectives for Superstition Vistas scenario planning included capacity building, tool development, and opportunities to catalyze a planning process. More specifically, we sought to:

• look at the land in a bold, holistic, and comprehensive manner;
• advance the Arizona State Land Department’s capacity to conduct large-scale planning and establish an example for other state land agencies facing urban growth opportunities;
• design a model sustainable development;
• advance scenario planning tools and illustrate their use;
• catalyze and inform debates about modernizing state trust land planning and development management; and
• stimulate a larger discussion about the Arizona Sun Corridor megaregion.

WLC, along with regional partnerships, neighboring jurisdictions, the regional electric and water utility, two private hospital providers, and a local mining company, formed the Superstition Vistas (SV) Steering Committee to advance the planning effort, secure funding, and hire a consulting team. The consultants, working with the committee over a three-year period, conducted extensive public outreach and values research, assembled data on Superstition Vistas, developed and refined a series of alternative land use scenarios for the development of a community of 1 million residents, evaluated the impacts of the different scenarios, and produced a composite scenario for the site.

The Arizona State Land Department (the landowner) adapted the consultants’ work to prepare a draft conceptual plan for Superstition Vistas in May 2011 and submitted a proposed comprehensive plan amendment to Pinal County. The county is now considering the proposed amendment and its Board of Supervisors is expected to act in late 2011.

Sustainability Lessons

The scenario analysis, utilizing enhancements supported by WLC, identified the most important factors in shaping development patterns and potential conflicts among desired outcomes (figure 2). The inclusion of individual building and infrastructure costs for the alternative scenarios facilitated examining the sensitivity of varying these key factors and the cost effectiveness of four increasing levels of energy and water efficiency in each building type.

The scenarios also examined the impact of urban form on vehicle miles traveled (VMT). Scenario model outputs included land use indicators, energy and water use, VMT, carbon emissions, and construction costs. This analysis revealed the “low-hanging fruit” for sustainability improvements. The consulting team, working with the Steering Committee, identified a number of lessons that illustrate the value of scenario planning tools and can be applied to other efforts to design more sustainable and efficient urban areas (Superstition Vistas Consulting Team 2011).

1. Create mixed-use centers to reduce travel times, energy use, and the carbon footprint. Mixed-use centers along public transportation routes and close to homes and neighborhoods are one of the most effective ways to reduce travel times, energy use, and the resulting carbon footprint. Smaller homes, more compact forms of urban development, and multimodal transportation systems all create similar benefits (figure 3). However, the scenario modeling for Superstition Vistas demonstrated that mixed-use centers would be substantially more important than increased density in affecting transportation choices, energy use, and the carbon footprint.

2. Foster upfront investments and high-quality jobs to catalyze economic success. A strong local economy and a diverse balance of nearby jobs, housing, and shops are critical for a sustainable community, especially when high-quality jobs are provided at the beginning of development. Significant upfront public investment and public-private partnerships can supply critical infrastructure and have an enormous impact on shaping development and increasing the value of state trust land. State owned trust land could also provide unique opportunities for patient capital, with enhanced trust land management authorities providing access to resources for upfront capital investment and the ability to recapture these investments when the land is sold or leased later at a higher value.

3. Provide multimodal transportation infrastructure and regional connections to facilitate efficient growth. Another critical step is determining how to phase transportation improvements as the region grows and the market can support increased services. Phased components may include buses first, then Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), with rights-of-way set aside for eventual commuter or light-rail corridors. Identifying and building multimodal transportation corridors and infrastructure prior to sales for residential and commercial development should establish the cohesiveness of the entire area and enable the evolution to more capital-intensive transportation infrastructure as the community matures.

4. Design efficient buildings that save water and energy resources and reduce the community’s carbon footprint. Incorporating construction costs and return on investment (ROI) data in resource planning allows for financial feasibility and cost-benefit calculations. The consulting team modeled four levels of water and energy use (baseline, good, better, best) for each scenario and building type. Results demonstrated that investments in energy efficiency would be better spent on residential than commercial and industrial buildings. An additional finding showed that building centralized renewable power generation may be a better investment than extreme conservation.

5. Offer housing choices that meet the needs of a diverse population. Ensuring a viable community means meeting the needs of all potential residents with a broad variety of development types and prices that local workers can afford and that allow for adjustments under future market conditions.

6. Incorporate flexibility to respond to changing circumstances. A challenge for large-scale master plans that will take shape in multiple phases over 50 years or more is how to plan so the development itself can evolve and even redevelop over time. Plan implementation needs to include mechanisms to limit future NIMBY (not in my back yard) problems for necessary infill and redevelopment projects.

Procedural Lessons

The visioning process for Superstition Vistas involved planning a completely new city or region of communities in a vacant area with a single public landowner and no existing population. Given the recent economic downturn, as well as the limited capacity of the state agency to bring land to market, development of this area will likely be postponed for a number of years. Despite these particular conditions, procedural lessons learned in the project to date are relevant to other long-term and large-scale efforts, and to the expanded use of scenario planning for community decision making in general.

Agreed-upon procedures and planning processes become increasingly important as the planning and development time period grows and the number of stakeholders increases. Significant changes in participants, perspectives, and external factors, such as the recent collapse of the development economy, should be expected in any long-term, multiparty project. Such challenges need to be considered and incorporated into project tasks.

1. Design for change. Long-term projects need to accommodate changes in stakeholders, decision makers, and even political perspectives during the course of planning and implementation. Projects would benefit enormously from anticipating such changes, agreeing on mechanisms to transfer knowledge to new participants, establishing certain criteria and decisions that new stakeholders would be expected to follow, understanding how to deal with political or market conditions that will change, and building resiliency for such factors into the alternative scenarios themselves.

2. Consider governance. This is an issue for planning and implementation efforts and for the political decision-making structure of a new community. In building a new city it is important to consider how to create a governance system capable of implementing a consistent, comprehensive vision for a community that does not yet exist.

3. Incorporate new community designs into local and regional comprehensive plans. It is also critical to consider how a project at the scale of Superstition Vistas, with up to 1 million residents and a buildout plan of 50 years or more, can be incorporated into the framework of a typical county comprehensive plan. Scenarios and visions must reflect ideas and plans that local jurisdictions will be politically willing and administratively able to incorporate into their planning processes.

4. Phase development. Communities need to establish mechanisms that allow the adoption of a long-term buildout vision and then incorporate a series of flexible and adaptable phased plans to implement that vision in appropriate stages.

5. Plan for market changes. Market conditions, housing preferences, and employment opportunities will evolve, and large-scale projects with creative and compelling visions may even create their own demand. No one knows what future markets may offer, so consideration of alternative markets and adaptable community designs are critical. Projected housing mixes and estimates of development absorption need to be flexible and not based only on current preferences and trends.

6. Connect to common values. Demonstrating how development proposals connect to common visions and values that are shared and stable over time is also important. For Superstition Vistas, values such as an opportunity for healthy lifestyles and choices for residents across the socioeconomic spectrum were found to be broadly accepted. Planners also need to recognize values that are more controversial or may be transient and likely to change.

Challenges and Opportunities

The WLC experience in planning for Superstition Vistas has been successful in several respects. The community came together through the Steering Committee to develop a consensus vision that represented multijurisdictional cooperation around sustainable “smart” growth. Neighboring communities, at the request of the state land commissioner, deferred any consideration of annexation. In addition, the Arizona State Land Department developed a plan for a geographic scale, time horizon, and level of comprehensiveness well beyond anything attempted previously. However, the proposed comprehensive plan amendment for Superstition Vistas is at best a first step toward a vision for a community of up to 1 million people.

The Arizona State Land Department has been unable, at least so far, to push the envelope very far on new and more creative ways to conceptualize large-scale developments that could enhance the economic value of state trust lands and improve regional urban form. The recent collapse of land and housing markets throughout the country has also impacted this project and local perceptions of future growth potential. Since the overall effort to conceptualize and implement development plans for Superstition Vistas is just beginning, initial on-the-ground development is not expected for at least a decade. There will be multiple opportunities to build on these planning efforts to bring bolder and more comprehensive visions forward as the real estate economy recovers and the land becomes ripe for development.

Scenario planning and effective visualizations become both more important and more challenging to achieve when conducting larger and longer-term visioning exercises. Visualizations that provide compelling depictions of activity centers and higher-density, mixed-use neighborhoods can help to gain public acceptance. Effective mechanisms are also needed to convey to current participants that the planning process is imagining community characteristics and housing and lifestyle preferences for their grandchildren or great-grandchildren many years in the future.

As noted earlier, upfront investments in transportation, economic development, education, and utility services can significantly shape a community, serve as a catalyst for higher-level employment, and earn high returns. To achieve this potential, mechanisms are needed to facilitate these investments, whether on private lands or state trust lands. Continued work on the contributory value of land conservation, infrastructure investment, planning, and ecosystem services, as well as the integration of this information into scenario planning, would greatly aid efforts to address uncertainty and advance community sustainability.

Other Projects and Lessons Learned

WLC conducted three additional demonstration projects to further enhance scenario planning tools and apply them in different situations.

Gallatin County, Montana

Sonoran Institute staff worked with Montana State University (MSU) to engage local stakeholders in a workshop where each of four teams produced scenarios for concentrating projected growth within the currently developed “triangle” region of Bozeman, Belgrade, and Four Corners. This effort successfully integrated Envision Tomorrow scenario planning with housing unit projections from the Sonoran Institute’s Growth Model and demonstrated the value of ROI tools as a reality check on proposed land use and building types. The project also demonstrated the value of scenario planning to local experts.

Lessons learned include recognizing that (1) for many participants working with paper maps was more intuitive that the touch screen technology we had employed; (2) additional information on land characteristics, such as soil productivity and habitat values, should be used in preparing growth scenarios; and (3) more effective techniques are needed to visualize the density and design of different land use types, as well as to incorporate political and market realities that are not typically captured with scenario planning tools.

Products from this Montana project will include the creation of a library of regionally appropriate building types for use with ROI and scenario modeling and a report examining the costs and benefits, including sustainability impacts, of directing future growth to the triangle area of Gallatin Valley. With WLC support MSU has been able to incorporate the use of scenario planning tools in its graduate program.

Garfield County, Colorado

Sonoran Institute’s Western Colorado Legacy Area office, with support from the Lincoln Institute, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and other local contributors, utilized the Envision Tomorrow tool in a new way to advance implementation of previously adopted plans calling for mixed-use infill and redevelopment in target growth areas. This project focused on stakeholder education regarding the mechanisms necessary to implement recently adopted comprehensive plans calling for town-centered development, rather than on scenario generation for a comprehensive plan.

Examination of policy and market feasibility for redevelopment in downtown Rifle, Colorado, was one of three separate efforts undertaken. The City of Rifle project successfully utilized an ROI tool to identify financial and regulatory factors that could impact revitalization efforts and engaged the key parties necessary for implementation, including property owners, developers, realtors, planning commissioners, local officials, state transportation representatives, and local staff.

Among the lessons learned from this project was the importance of grounding bold visions with market reality. For example, previous planning efforts in Rifle had focused on six-to-eight-story mixed-use buildings, but in the current market even three-to-four-story projects are not considered feasible (figure 4c). Most attention now is given to two-story mixed-use projects and townhomes. Visualizations for an underutilized parcel in the center of town illustrated the type of one-story option that may be most feasible for initial commercial development (figure 4b). Constraints related to parking requirements and high minimum lot coverage requirements were also identified as limits on investment. In addition to pinpointing changes in Rifle’s building code, these findings spurred discussion about the role of public-private partnerships in catalyzing downtown development.

Morongo Basin, California

This area of high open space and wildlife habitat values between Joshua Tree National Park and the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center in Southern California may be impacted by spillover from regional growth. This project with the Morongo Basin Open Space Group involves an innovative effort to link results from the ongoing conservation priority-setting efforts with both a GIS tool to analyze and predict how land use patterns impact wildlife habitat and the scenario planning capability of Envision Tomorrow.

We are evaluating the environmental impacts of the current and potential alternative development patterns and location-specific planning and land use options. The tools being developed for this effort will be useful to land trusts throughout the country that are interested in engaging partners on local and regional planning issues and incorporating larger landscape conservation and wildlife habitat goals into their projects.

Open Source Planning Tools

Western Lands and Communities has recently been focusing on efforts to develop open source planning tools as a mechanism to increase the use of scenario planning. Key factors that hinder their use include: (1) the cost and complexity of the tools themselves; (2) the cost and availability of data; (3) a lack of standardization, making integration of tools and data difficult; and (4) proprietary tools that may be difficult to adapt to local conditions and may impede innovation.

Proponents of open source modeling tools believe open and standardized coding will facilitate increased transparency and interoperability between models, ultimately resulting in faster innovation and greater utilization. As a result of our work with Envision Tomorrow on the Superstition Vistas project, WLC and other members of an open source planning tools group are continuing to advance scenario planning tools and pursue the promise of open source tools that can foster sustainable communities in many more locations.

About the Author

Jim Holway directs Western Lands and Communities, the Lincoln Institute’s joint venture with the Sonoran Institute, based in Phoenix, Arizona. He was previously assistant director of the Arizona Department of Water Resources and a professor of practice at Arizona State University.

References

Propst, Luther. 2008. A model for sustainable development in Arizona’s Sun Corridor. Land Lines 20(3).

Superstition Vistas Consulting Team. 2011. Superstition Vistas: Final report and strategic actions. www.superstition-vistas.org

Lincoln Institute Publications

Brail, Richard K. 2008. Planning support systems for cities and regions.

Campoli, Julie, and Alex S. MacLean. 2007. Visualizing density.

Condon, Patrick M., Duncan Cavens, and Nicole Miller. 2009. Urban planning tools for climate change mitigation.

Culp, Peter W., Andy Laurenzi, and Cynthia C. Tuell. 2006. State trust lands in the West: Fiduciary duty in a changing landscape.

Hopkins, Lewis D., and Marisa A. Zapata. 2007. Engaging the future: Forecasts, scenarios, plans, and projects.

Kwartler, Michael, and Gianni Longo. 2008. Visioning and visualization: People, pixels, and plans.